Vocab In Context Questions and Strategies for SAT Reading

This is a daunting story about an abject old man whose requisitions made him wealthy but also forlorn. As a youth his life was fraught with anxiety and despondent treatment from his family. Isolated, he wallowed in his destitute self despair, which encouraged his spiteful nature and a need to become affluent. As he grew he gained an interest in making all those around him as unhappy as he was.Fueled by his dilapidated feelings he found him self in a redoubtable job in no time, he became an auditor. His primary job was to go from place to place and collect unpaid taxes, if not he would get to close their business or make requisitions of your belongings and domicile. This was of course a suitable job for someone who wanted to make other people miserable, and any attempts to pacify or allay him were dismissed with his abhorring smile.He was very famous for this smile, so famous in fact it was a well known joke among people who knew him that his smile could even assuage a feral dog. Once , on very quite winter day the old man was seen making his way down the austere street in what was considered one of the least wealthy parts of town. He dressed very formidably but that was overlooked by that nasty smile he held on his face. This was when he was struck by a lightning bolt wiping that dirty smile right off his face. By Zachary Clementz

Burroughs Wellcome Company Essay

In 1982, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP) labeled the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) and began to warn the public of the disease. In 1983 and 1984, the virus that causes AIDS was isolated and in 1988 it was named the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Burroughs Wellcome Company is a subsidiary of Wellcome PLC. Wellcome PLC is a pharmaceutical firm that employs 20,000 people in 18 countries. Wellcome PLC produces both ethical and over the counter medication. Zovirax, which treats herpes infections, accounted for $492 million in sales in 1989 (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). Retrovir, an AIDS treatment, was the second largest seller with $225 million in sales (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). Wellcome PLC also produces over-the-counter Actifed and Sudafed with $253 million in sales in 1989 (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). In 1981, there were 305 reported cases of AIDS, and by 1989 there were 35,198 reported cases of AIDS with numbers expected to continue to rise, although at a much slower rate (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). The majority of victims, almost 90%, were gay men or intravenous drug users, and almost one half of reported cases were in major metropolitan areas, such as San Francisco, Los Angeles, Houston, and New York. Not enough was known about the disease in the early 80’s to create a reliable way to predict its’ rate of growth. Economically, treating AIDS patients was proving to be very expensive, averaging between $70,000 and $141,000 per patient according to a 1987 study by the RAND Corporation (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). Treating some forms of cancer averaged less than half of that cost. Since the income level of many AIDS patients was low, Medicaid covered treatment costs for approximately 40% of the patients, resulting in an Burroughs Wellcome Company,   estimated annual cost to the Medicaid system of between $700 and $750 million in 1988 (Kerin & Peterson, 2013).  Several pharmaceutical companies, including Burroughs Wellcome, were in the  race to produce an effective drug to combat HIV and AIDS. Burroughs Wellcome began research in 1984, developed Retrovir and began clinical trials on humans in 1985 (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). The FDA cleared Burroughs to market Retrovir in 1987, as the first and only authorized treatment for AIDS. Bristol Myers developed a drug called DDI, which appeared to slow the progress of the AIDS virus and lessen the damage it causes (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). Hoffman-LaRoche developed a similar drug called DDC that began clinical trials in 1989 (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). As soon as Burroughs Wellcome was given the authority to market Retrovir in March of 1987, public protests began regarding the perceived high price of the drug. Wholesale price for Retrovir was set at $188 for one hundred 100-mg capsules. The recommended dosage was twelve 100-milligram capsules per day. The average annual treatment for an AIDS patients on Retrovir averaged approximately $8,528-$9,745 (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). The public, media, and advocacy groups compared the price of Retrovir to the cancer drug Interferon. The annual cost to a patient taking Interferon was only $5,000. In December of 1987, due to increased pressure, Burroughs Wellcome, reduced the price of Retrovir by 20%, and again by 20% in September of 1989 (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). The first price reduction was due to a cost savings in the production of synthetically manufactured thymidine while the second was due to an increase in potential patients. By 1989 sales had increased from $24.8 million in 1987 to $2 25.1 million (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). As postulated by industry analysts, the direct cost of research and development (R&D) for Retrovir was estimated at $50 million. Burroughs Wellcome spent an additional $30-50 million in indirect costs to establish a new plant and equipment to produce Retrovir (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). They also donated $10 million worth of Retrovir to 4,500 AIDS patients. Pharmaceutical R&D of a new drug in the US averages around $125 million, so with direct and indirect cost to develop Retrovir was on the low side. Prior to Retrovir, Burroughs Wellcome had spent a reported $726 million for R&D in  the previous five years without producing a single commercial winner (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). Retrovir was designated as an â€Å"orphan drug† in 1985 under the Orphan Drug Act of 1983. This enabled Burroughs Wellcome to gain marketing exclusivity for a sevenyear period after its initial introduction. When Burroughs Wellcome was faced with the task of pricing Retrovir they had to account for many factors. They had to consider the demand for Retrovir. Since they were developing a drug for a fairly new disease, with relatively few patients, they had no way to predict what the demand would be in the next five years. They had to recoup their cost with the known numbers of AIDS in 1987, which were still fairly low. Burroughs Wellcome had to take into account both the direct and indirect cost spent on the R&D of Retrovir that totaled approximately $100 million. With an unknown market and $100 million to recoup they had to price Retrovir fairly high at the beginning. Looming competition was another important aspect for Burroughs Wellcome. They knew other pharmaceutical compan ies were researching drugs to treat AIDS and analysts believed there would be one or more of these drugs on the market by 1991 (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). Burroughs Wellcome still had an ethical obligation to maintain fair pricing while trying to recoup their cost, as well as having an existing obligation to its employees, shareholders, and stakeholders. Most importantly however, is their responsibility to patients that rely on Burroughs Wellcome’s products for their health and well-being With an increasing number of AIDS cases, Burroughs Wellcome had a social and financial responsibility to make the drug Retrovir accessible to those who needed it, while remaining financially viable. It would be socially irresponsible to exploit people with an illness for mass profit gains. Like most other industries, the health care industry is competitive and no business is immune to failure. Because of this, Burroughs Wellcome must remain profitable in order to protect its employees and shareholders as well as to ensure that the company  can continue its research while providing the medical community with effective medicine. As previously mentioned, Burroughs had dropped the price of Retrovir twice: first on December 15, 1987 when a price drop of 20% was justified by synthetically produced thymidine and a second 20% cut due to a further expansion of HIV from 600,000 to one million estimated potential patients, at which point Burroughs’ gross profit margin (70.6%) and return on sales (20%) were comparable to other competitors in the industry (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). When pressured by outside entities about further reducing the price, Sir Alfred Shepard of the Board of Directors said, † There is no plan for another price cut† (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). As a result of this balance between sustainability, profitability, and social responsibility, it was important that Burroughs Wellcome maintained its margins and success, but continued to remain sensitive to price concerns. Furthermore, it would benefit both Burroughs and patients in need of the drug, if  insurance companies provided ade quate coverage on the drug Retrovir, as private insurance companies only covered $250 million annually compared to the $750 million covered by Medicaid (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). In January of 1990, congressional lobbyists began campaigning to reduce excessive profits in the drug industry. This set off a new round of pressure from the U.S. Congress, the media, and AIDS advocacy groups to again reduce the price of Retrovir. In 1987 sales of Retrovir were $24.8 million and net profit before tax was $8 million. Considering the $100 million dollar investment for the development, as well as new plant and equipment, the Return on Investment (ROI) was only 8%; meaning they only recovered about 8% of their initial investment for Retrovir. By fiscal year 1988 the ROI for Retrovir had increased to 52% but the initial investment had still not been recovered. In the five years prior to the sale of Retrovir, Burroughs Wellcome as a whole spent $726 million in R&D with no significant new drug.  The ROI for Retrovir was still less than the company as a whole when considering the investment in R&D. See figure 1 Figure 1 According to Industry analysts it was estimated that the cost of Retrovir was between 30 and 50 cents per capsule (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). Using 40 cents for estimates, it can be determined that in 1987 when the drug first became available for sale the return on sales (ROS) was 28%. Realistically, the cost was probably more towards  the 50 cent per capsule higher end, as producing the AZT required a biological chemical harvested from herring sperm and took months and over 20 chemical reactions to produce (Kerin & Peterson, 2013). Using the high-end estimate the ROS in 1989 was only 23.3%. This is very close to the 23.5% ROS industry average. By 1989 the price of Retrovir had been reduced by 20% twice. Burroughs Wellcome stated the first price reduction in December of 1987 was due to a synthetically manufactured Thymidine becoming available. At this time, ROS was 23.0% using the 40 cent COGS estimate. Due to public pressure for an affordable AIDS treatment Burroughs Wellcome reduced its price again by 20% in September of 1989. At the 40 cent estimated cost this reduced the ROS to16.4%. Even using the low 30 cent estimate the ROA was only 24% which was is still very comparable to the 23.5% industry average. Burroughs Wellcome overall company ROS in 1989, while they were selling Retrovir at the $1.20 price per 100mg, was only 20%, which is over 3% lower than the industry average. Continued pressure to reduce the price again is not warranted. The figures show that to reduce the price another 20% would show at best a low 18% ROS and a possible negative ROS. Comparing Burroughs Wellcome to 1989 industry average shows all their current  ratios are well within what is normal for the industry. They are not the highest or the lowest of Return on Sales, Return on Assets, or Return on Equity. Burroughs Wellcome has two choices at this point. Do not reduce the price or reduce the price. The advantage of not reducing the price is the ability to maintain their current ratios that will allow them to continue their R&D for new drugs. The disadvantage of not reducing price is dealing with the public, media, Congress, and advocacy groups that may continue to increase pressure on Burroughs Wellcome and create further negative publicity. The advantages of reducing the price would be the reduced pressure from the groups mentioned before and the claim of being ethically responsible. The disadvantage of reducing the price would be losing the current ratios. They take the chance to lose profit margin therefore lose some ability to develop new drugs. Although there is public unrest in regards to the price of Retrovir we do not recommend Burroughs Wellcome reduce the price further. Reducing the price of Retrovir without another new drug would further reduce their current ratios, which are all within industry averages. Drug companies need profits as incentive to continue their  research. Especially when there is the very real possibility of going several years without the discovery and approval of a new drug. Although, on the surface, it seems very unfair for a patient to have to spend close to $10,000 per year for treatment, it would be far worse if they didn’t have the treatment as an option at all. Drug companies such as Burroughs Wellcome would avoid trying to develop â€Å"orphan drugs† if they had no chance of recovering cost. This is why government offers subsidies, tax benefits, and grants extending patents for drugs that qualify. In 1989 there were only 35,189 reported cases of AIDS in America and due to prevention awareness and HIV treatments, AID’s numbers were leveling off. Drug companies are taking a  huge risk investing millions of dollars in cures and treatments for rare diseases. In part, the cost for â€Å"orphan drugs† is so high because so few people are consumers of them. While it would be socially conscious for Burroughs Wellcome to drop the price further, they have to remain a viable company. Profits will ensure the financial future of the company as well as all the shareholders and stakeholders of the company. Maintaining the ROI percentages will allow Burroughs to remain viable and competitive allowing them to continue to develop new drugs that may provide further benefit. If they were to drop their prices it would be benefit public relations as they put the needs of the consumers before profits, however in such a competitive environment this could prove to be to a liability in the pharmaceutical industry, therefore, it is advisable that they do not drop their price by another 20%. References Kerin, R.A & Peterson, R.A. (2003) Strategic Marketing Problems: Cases and Comments England: Pearson Education Limited

The Bermuda Triangle Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Bermuda Triangle - Coursework Example Beginning with the important accidents that occurred in the Bermuda Triangle due to which it attracted massive attention, disappearance of an entire troop of bombers and planes without leaving behind a single trace are worth mentioning. Unexplained disasters led people to believe in the myths that there ought to be something deadly, monstrous, and heinous in the ocean due to which people, planes, and ships disappear to never get recovered. After the big incident of plane crashes in the Bermuda Triangle, the gateway to disasters opened up and myriad other disappearances began to be reported due to which this specific area became a highly talked about, riveting, and enthralling topic around the globe and research began on a large scale with no concrete facts revealed and ambiguity, confusion, and mystery ensued. Over time, headlights continued cropping up about more flights and ships along with hundred of innocent people vanished in the deep waters and no explanation was ever presented publicly other than the dark doubtful statements which led people to speculate that there had to be some supernatural phenomenon in action in that specific area of the Atlantic Ocean, never once stopping to consider the probable role played by natural calamities or human errors. One stark similarity among all the casualties which played a major role in spreading black doubts among the public was that the ships, planes, and aircraft which vanished in the ocean never showed up after some months as wreckage.

Visual media Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Visual media - Assignment Example The people should stop living in ignorance but get the facts about the HIV which include how the virus is transmitted, care and treatment and nutrition to those who are infected so that they may live long. People must stay protected from the disease. This image impacts the viewer in a significant way. It encourages him/her to be vigilant. This ensures that the viewers are tested to know their status. This will enable them to live life fully with the knowledge of the HIV. The image also acts as a reminder of the existence of the disease that has no cure. The health providers are behind this image and to be specific the Health organization. The firm is encouraging people to be tested for the HIV virus. It is important to note that all people are vulnerable to the disease with equity whether one is living a prestigious life or in abject poverty. Therefore, individuals should always stay protected to avoid

What Is Globalization Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

What Is Globalization - Research Proposal Example    Another word for globalization is an exchange. For the most part, the recent form and development of the world can be attributed to globalization because the technological advancement has happened as a result of the very exchange of resources and services among countries. While there are several features of globalization related to different aspects including economic, social, and political, yet â€Å"where it has had a most telling impact is in major and dramatic increases in global trade and exchanges in an open, integrated and borderless international environment† (Pere). Globalization has particularly increased as a result of the advent of the Internet. The Internet has allowed people to socialize with one another, make friends, and exchange ideas and opinions without being limited by the geographic boundaries. Globalization has played a very important role in the exchange of talent across the nations. These days, the Internet is used to recruit talented people from all over the world. â€Å"Globalization has changed us into a company that searches the world, not just to sell or to the source, but to find intellectual capital - the worlds best talents and greatest ideas† (Welch cited in Kulkarni). Employers use social networking sites like Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn to learn more about the candidates they are considering hiring. Positive effects of globalization include increased knowledge of world cultures; increased understanding of the norms and values, trends and traditions of different people; economic strengthening and development of the underdeveloped countries.

Anne Bradstreet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Anne Bradstreet - Essay Example Apart from the tough living conditions, Anne Bradstreet led a challenging life, always keeping up with the demands of being the mother of eight children and the wife of a Puritan Governor. She had to uproot her household on numerous occasions and move to even more distant, uncivilized and unknown areas so that her husband and father could increase their properties and gain even more political power in their colony. Even though Anne Bradstreet's father was a very powerful, prominent leader of the Puritan community, he inspired his daughter to become a poet. Thomas Dudley was amazingly encouraging of his Bradstreet's literally appetite and never opposed her desire to either learn or write; she was very educated for a woman of her times. So it is very understandable why she dedicated so much of her best work to him, "her "Quaternions," or poems on groups of four: the four elements, the four humors, the four ages of man, the four seasons of the year, and the four monarchies-the Assyrian, the Persian, the Grecian, and the Roman" were all him. (Martin 14). This could be the key reason that despite the severe demands of Puritanism, Anne Bradstreet was the first woman poet to have her work published in the New World. Her first publication, "The Tenth Muse Lately sprung up in America, By a Gentlewoman in those parts" was not recognized for best poems and it was published in 1650 by Steven Bowtell. Her brother-in-law, Rev. John Woodbridge had taken a manuscript of her poems to London, in 1647 and had them published without her authorization. Many think the reason he did this was to prove that females could be educated, write and published without coming into direct competition or becoming inferior to men. Bradstreet was caught wholly off-guard and was a little embarrassed too, not by her work itself but simply by the publication of it. It is best explained in her own words: "I cast thee by as one unfit for light, Thy visage was so irksome in my sight; Yet being mine own, at length affection would Thy blemishes amend, if so I could: I washed thy face, but more defects I saw, And rubbing off a spot still made a flaw." (Millier and Parini 4). However by 1666 she was already hopeful of publishing a second edition. No such manuscript exists but the 1678 publication of "Several Poems", "By a Gentlewoman in New England . . . Corrected by the Author and enlarged by an Addition of several other Poems found amongst her Papers after her Death" shows the feminist poet at the height of her literally best. Bradstreet lived in a society where they needed their religious beliefs to survive the rigorous stress of the New World; their concrete faith dictated that God had a plan for everyone was what got them through. While Bradstreet's faith was absolute, there were times when she struggled to keep faith. In her spiritual autobiography addressed to her children, she confesses that on occasion she wondered about the truth of the Scriptures and questioned the existence of God and His plans. "I never saw any miracles to confirm me," she says in her autobiography and adds, "and those which I read of how did [I] know but they were feigned." (Lonsdale 185). She ultimately quelled her fears and subdued her doubts not through theological reasoning but through a poet's spirit. Initially Bradstreet's writings were not

Demeaning Images of Women in Advertising and Other Media Essay

Demeaning Images of Women in Advertising and Other Media - Essay Example This issue is one that, if not the worst, is a detrimental concern that gradually inculcates public demeanor into the majority of women. They may be some issues that also affect the whole being of human, but the general public generalizes everything that they perceived resulting to more altering images of feminine. For instance, numerous issues nowadays are not just associated to state regulations or open differentials, but also to some constituents of the community, biology, altruism of anticipations, and the media. To converse them, feminist must go beyond the regulatory policies or the spreading idea of patriarchy--integrating connections with those in the environment and commence to dismount the degrading effigy of women (Spare). This paper seeks to deliver the rationale of choice of the issue, delineate the paradigms that degrade the effigy of women by providing some exemplars, depict the implications regarding appropriate protest to acknowledge the alterations in the issue of women, and finally, a concluding statement about the overall scope of the paper. 2.0 Rationale of Choice Amid all of the feminine issues that may include gender inequalities, sexual harassment and assault, and reproductive liberation rights, only one thing that has gotten to be the most talked-about issue. One issue that describes a detrimental and generic impact to the majority of women is the demeaning images of women in advertising and other media. In particular, the issue before was not about the concerns regarding depicting the differences between men and women, but about depicting women differences among other women (Lorde, qtd. in Stern 4). However, the issue of restricted images of women in advertising commenced through Goffman’s 1976 book entitled Gender Advertisements (Baym, Fetterley, Millet, Russ, qtd. in Stern 2). The production of such effigies emerged in themes generated by men. Women images are fitted to the generic cluster of women, and images were manifested similarly by all the viewers. This leads to the notion that universal images of Western women are capture d through the perspectives of men (Firestone, Lakoff, Russ, qtd. in Stern 2). This has opened to the idea of analyzing the gender role representations (Courtney and Whipple, Gilly, qtd. in Stern 2) in advertising. The main problem that arises is the dominance of men themes for the representation of women across the media (Bakan, qtd. in Stern 2). In the 1960s, Kassarjian commenced to study the blacks in the American advertisements (1964-1965) (qtd. in Stern 3). By the 1970s, the development of the study rose as minorities began to depict the differences between white and black customers (Sturdivant, qtd. in Stern 3), specifically in the issue of inequality. Blacks were associated significantly to menial employees, indigent, and community problems. Some pundits acclaimed that the â€Å"exclusion of racial minorities† in the favorable representations had a leveraging impact on minority youths, leading them to feel disjointed to the community (Kern-Foxworth, qtd. in Stern 3). 3. 0 The Paradigms and Exemplars Some paradigms of old and recent demeaning representations of women in all forms of media are presented in this section. However, it must be noted that even if women are the subject of this matter, there can still be misrepresentations that involve the opposite sex in portraying these degrading images of feminine. One of the oldest degrading women advertisements was done by a cigarette company that utilized slogans such as â€Å"blow in her face and she will follow you anywhere† (Matt). A cigarette brand, Tipalet was advertised having an image of woman with

What Role Can Nurses Play in Treating Hypertension Essay

What Role Can Nurses Play in Treating Hypertension - Essay Example The literature review looks at some past and recent articles and studies that have specifically explored the role of nurses in the care of hypertension and how this role can evolve to provide an overall healthcare provision. Hypertension is one of the most prevalent conditions that afflict Americans. Sad though it is, what is more disturbing is the fact that a majority of the American population is unaware of their own condition. This puts such individuals in a high risk position. Hypertension does not only lead to increased risks of complications, but also increases the number of visits to the healthcare facilities, leading to loss of time, money and resources. The amount and manpower that the current health care facilities bear in treating cases of hypertension or cases related to or complicated by hypertension are enormous. With time, there is more awareness about methods to prevent, and properly manage cases of hypertension. Early diagnosis of conditions along with prevention of their complications is now one of the main priorities of the health department. Time has shown many changes and trends that have taken place in the approach for treating hypertension in the United States. The figures and statistics are promising. Studies have shown a gradual decrease in the prevalence of hypertension in the USA since the 70s, with more signs of further regression. These results have been obtained due to increased awareness, better and affordable treatment and more control over the understanding of its various physiological processes. (Burt, 1995) The nurses are perhaps the only health care personnel who come in most contact with hypertensive patients. Most of the new cases of hypertensive patients are diagnosed in ambulatory health care visits. Blood pressure readings are taken as a standard protocol in any of the doctor's or other healthcare professional's visit. It is easy to see why the chances of diagnosis of hypertension in a clinical environment and by a nurse are increased. Similarly, during the different in hospital stays and procedures, the regulation and monitoring of blood pressure is one of the most fundamental responsibilities of a nurse.This becomes all the more important in cases who are known to have high blood pressures, are admitted in the hospital due to a complication of hypertension, any co-morbid conditions or diseases, or due to any surgery that has taken place. The nurses keep check and record and up to date monitoring of the patient's vitals in all of the phases of treatment. They are also responsibl e to keep check on the follow ups of the patient and inform accordingly should the need arise.From the abovec in preventing complications due to hypertension is large and necessary. It is also therefore understood how a properly trained staff can help and assist in timely notification and treatment of untoward situations. Nurses are the key players in handling patients with all kinds of hypertension. Therefore, to ensure their proper working and efficiency, we must be able to critically analyze the performances given by the profession.The review aims to look at different studies and articles that focus on the important contributory role that nurses have played and continue to do so in caring for patients with hypertension. It will look at the different challenges that face nurses providing care to hypertensive pati

Society (Immigration) U.S Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Society (Immigration) U.S - Movie Review Example Avalon’s journey begins with a polish-Jewish family, laced up with strong family ties and attachment for almost every reason like love, respect, care and integrity. (Gustafson, 2004) Krachinsky’s clan moved to America and settled in Baltimore in 1914 with hopes and spirit to earn pleasure and harmony, wanted to experience the wonders of America and it limitless possibilities but unfortunately they faced unpleasant changes in their strong family network and no longer remained compassionate about their deep traditional roots. They multiplied into generations and got success in their financial statuses but faced some heartbreaking problems when their 2nd and 3rd generation moved away from family bounding and pursued for American ideology. Krachinsky brought along their fine cultural, traditional and religious values which were later eroded by the strong social forces and were replaced by the modernize American Culture. (Paul Haspel, 2008) The story revolves around three ma in changes that the family suffered through, firstly when the family started moving to suburbs, Secondly Levinson emphasized on the get together with the extended families on special days like thanksgiving or church days, was no longer practiced or enjoyed together on a long dinner table in fact, gradually shrunk to small tables after the arrival of television, Third and the main point was that the succeeding generation started replacing their family names. The youth was driven slowly and gradually into cultural assimilation where they forgot their roots and traditional practices and ran for the charisma that the American Society carries. The limelight of fast pace American life has always attracted people regardless of their beliefs. This is what impressed Sam when he first stepped in America and saw the biggest and brightest celebrations and he realized that he made the right decision. Later he was proven wrong when he experienced the harsh attitudes from his own son and his wife. Levinson has brilliantly pictured the generation gap with all its components like adaptation of new technological advancements, upgrading lifestyles by moving to suburbs and doing a white collar jobs, replacement of their own sir names and keeping American names. (Haspel, 2008) The detoriation of cultural heritage effected and poisoned Sam gradually and ultimately when he finally saw his grandson visiting him in old home. It is about all immigrants who face such issues like language difference, religious difference and on the whole color differences. Whatever the picture, media and Hollywood presents, the problems that immigrants from all around the world face remains there but they have no direct way to popularize it therefore the world accept the picture which is neatly painted by the American media that how immigrants have successfully accomplished in America, ignoring the fact that they have sacrificed their precious norms in terms of their moral, religious and cultural values to get this materialistic improvement in life. There is no doubt that American land is charismatic, full of glitz and glam but at the same time it heavily lacks family life and discipline of human life which can never lose its essence no matter how much we progress and achieve in our life. Levinson developed an awesome piece with a

Reflection 9 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Reflection 9 - Essay Example Such companies as Walmart, Walgreens and others are proving that healthy and fresh food sales can bring even higher revenue than those of fast or junk one (Obama 116). Gradually, companies start to sell more healthy products, which, as a result, become more affordable to people and the demand grows. Consequently, manufacturers also receive more money. As such, â€Å"healthier food options make good business sense† (Obama 116). On the other hand, the idea of healthy eating and lifestyle should be actively promoted among ordinary people, especially children. The latter should understand its benefits and effects on their general well-being and even future life and success. The idea of cooperation, or as I decided to call it – â€Å"joint efforts†, is related to original complexity of the obesity problem which has nationwide dimensions nowadays. Instead of, for instance, investing into curing diseases caused by obesity (diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, risks of heart stroke, etc.), big companies could monetarily support production and spread of healthy food items so it became cheaper and more available for people â€Å"living in low-income areas† (Khullar 126). Thus, step by step â€Å"good† food could replace â€Å"high-fat, high-calorie, low-nutrient† (Khullar 126) menus of shops and restaurants in preference to fresh and useful meals. Additionally, the reduction of junk and fast food advertising would contribute to the promotion of healthy lifestyle. Hence, in the essay I described the ideas of healthy eating awareness and joint efforts needed to promote it - two most capturing thoughts expressed in Michelle Obamas and Dhruv Khullars articles – directed at resolving not only physical but social problem of

Home Depot Essay Example for Free

Home Depot Essay Organizational talent is where the organization has the best of the best personnel in as its staff. This covers all the departments of the organization from subordinate staff, production staff as well as the technical staff. Having such a staff base can be advantageous to the organization in terms of efficiency and quality service delivery. The Home Depot Company is one such organization that has the very best personnel as members of its staff. According to Bullard (2010), there are a few basic tactics in which and organization can make maximum of use of its organizational talent and they are: Remove your Constant Underperformers: It is a waste of resources to pay an employee whose performance is not worthy talking about. Therefore in order to remain with employees who can perform, it is wise to get rid of the nonperformers. This is one strategy that the Home Depot uses to improve its service delivery. Bad apples: There are many obstacles that an organization encounters in the day to day running of its activities; therefore for there to be smooth running of the business, the organization should get rid of these internal and external obstacles. Hidden gems: Each organization has the â€Å"silent performer†. This is the employee who is never in the limelight but delivers the best services for the company. Discovering this employee and nurturing him through motivation is the best way that an organization can use to ensure that the organizations talent is maximized. High-quality outside hires: Short term outsourcing can be beneficial for the company especially in technical areas. The human resource department should always be on the look out for those potential employees who can add value to the business and hire them when need arises. The Home Depot as an international brand intends to use the following management techniques to gain a competitive advantage in the Do It Yourself industry (Hewitt, 2007). Performance Management: The performance management allows the company to evaluate the individual performance of its employees and as such it can able to tell which employee fits in which department and how to ensure they deliver the best service for the company. Compensation Management: Nothing can be more motivation an employee as being rewarded for good performance. The Home Depot Company is one such company that ensures that its best performers are recognized and rewarded. This gives them more moral to perform and deliver quality work for the company. Learning Management: Employee training forums help them to be able to learn about new production as well as sales and marketing and as such they can be able to diversify and produce more quality goods. The Home Depot intends to use this management feature to ensure that their staffs especially in the production sector are well trained and conversant with the latest market trends and designs. Social Networking: Social networking can also be referred to as team building, even thou this concept is not new at the Home Depot company, it seeks to improve it and come up with diverse methods of networking and team building. Discuss the Key Channels that Home Depot Developed for Recruiting Talent By recruiting talent, the Home Depot has been able to build the following key basic channels of organization management as well as customer relationship management. The Home Depot has been able to discover capabilities that can be used to determine the success of the customer experience as well as the customer relationship management (Hewitt, 2007). Some of the capabilities include the design and implementation of viable customer relationship management (CRM). This will be used to ensure that clients’ needs are well taken care of. Another key channel that the Home Depot developed by recruiting talent is that it has been able to determine the most productive channel for each department. This has ensured that the level of production in the organization is on steady upward progress in each and every department (Hewitt, 2007). The last key channel of development that the Home Depot develops by talent recruit is that it has been able to build a mutual relationship between itself and its various business partners and associates. This has helped it to ensure that there is smooth running of businesses it the various franchises that it operates in and outside America. Discuss the Critical Programs used by Home Depot to Keep Talent in their Pipeline  The Home Depot has put in place a few programs / strategies that are meant to ensure that the staff it hires are not tempted to jump ship and search for greener pastures but they stay committed to their work. For the new recruits, they are first guided on the various functions of the department they will assigned to, after which they are given a challenge to undertake (Hewitt, 2007). The talent will feel â€Å"empowered† by the challenge given to him / her and will strive to deliver the best, however the management is always on the standby to ensure that they are given any support that they may require. In addition to that, the skilled talents are allowed to try out a variety of roles before they can be advised on the best carrier choice to take. Finally the talents are given an opportunity to try out new innovations and ideas that they might have, by so doing the talents will feel appreciated and as such it will hard for them to leave the organization (Hewitt, 2007). Discuss Three Lessons Learned by Home Depot related to Talent Management. Some of the lessons that the Home Depot learned in relation to talent management are: Investing in talent, give programs time to work, listen and respond to naysayers. Listen and Respond to Naysayers: In every organization, there is always positive and negative criticism coming in from all quarters. The Home Depot has learnt to use the public relation skills by always giving a positive and promising feed back to any criticism that is raise against it. In so doing the company has been able to draw admirers from different regions of the world. Youth Investment: The youths can be used to determine the future of an organization, this is because of their willingness to work, learn and deliver. The youths are also innovative and filled with creative ideas. The Home Depot extensively invests in the youths in all sectors and departments. The youth are then given the responsibility of delivering quality serviced for the organization. Time: The rush by most organizations to have instant results is what makes the programs the implement fail, however when it comes to Home Depot, it has learnt to give time for the programs it implements to develop, mature before the results trickle in. y so doing, the company has been able to reap maximum inputs from the output it gives. Summation / Conclusion The Home Depot Company is a sure that with good planning and implementation, any business can grow into an empire in the shortest time possible. In addition to that investing in youth talent is another way for a company to expand rapidly. The Home Depot should spread its customer base to other untapped market like Africa where there is a lot of potential.

Assessing Globalization In Saudi Arabia

Assessing Globalization In Saudi Arabia Globalization is defined as a process in which people companies and governments of different countries interact and integrate among each other. This process has been found to be driven by international trade and is also significantly aided by information technology. Since we are more interested in its effect on the economic condition of Saudi Arabia, hence the term that is of greater importance for us is the term economic globalization that refers to the integration of national economies to form an international economy. When talking of economic globalization we are more interested in knowing the foreign direct investments, migration, capital flows and the spread of technology for a country. The process of globalization affects the environment, culture economic developments, prosperity and the physical well being of humans. As people going to different places and performing business at different places have an effect on the people of that place and thus we can say that globalization has resulted in widening of cultural boundaries around the world. Although globalization is thought of as a relatively new process but if we go in depth history we find that globalization has been affecting the people around the world for years. If we go into the history we find signs of globalization since the time when China and Europe were connected to each other through the famous Silk Road in the Middle Ages. If we the features of compare current wave of globalization with the time just before the First World War in 1914 we find that there are many similarities Although there have been instances of globalization since ancient times but the speed at which the world globalized was never the same as it is in the current era. The main reason for this have been technological advancements and the policies implemented by the countries in the past few decades. Going into the details of figures we find that the volume of world trade has become 20 times of its volume in the year 1950. The pace of globalization can also be observed by observing the foreign investments taking place around the world. Observing this factor our statement gets even more support as flows of foreign investments were observed to be doubled in a span of just two years in the period from 1997 to 1999 when they increased from $468 billion to $827 billion. Thus observing these figures we can say that the globalization today is taking place at a much faster rate than it has ever been in the past. Observing the increase in the pace of globalization it is important to observe the factors behind this rapid increase in the rate of globalization around the world. The policies adopted by the governments of various countries around the world have served as an accelerator for globalization. The policies of governments around the world since the second world have led to opening up of economies around the world. The countries have adopted free market economic systems around the world. These steps have led to numerous opportunities for international trade and investments. It has also been observed that various restrictions on foreign trades and investments have been relaxed over the past few years especially the last two decades. Thus these policies have helped in the achieving the aim of international, industrial and financial business structure. Since the Second World War the politicians have been planning to break down borders that hampered trades in the process they have found several international institutions intended to see that this process could be easily facilitated. Institutions like World Bank and International Monetary fund (IMF) were setup in the process. There were many agreements on opening up of trades after the Second World War which led to the formation of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Since then World Trade Organization (WTO), which was found as result of agreements signed under GATT has been working with an aim of promoting Global trades freely. As mentioned above technology has served as one of the key drivers for globalization. Information Technology in particular has played a dramatic role in transforming economic life around the world and has played a key role in promoting globalization it has brought consumers, investors, business together by means of internet and e-commerce. It has brought all the information from around the world available to each person who wishes to get access to the information. It has resulted in faster and more detailed analysis of economic trends, has made the transfer of assets easier and has also made communication between distant people much easier. History of Saudi Arabia: Saudi Arabia, the homeland of Arabs is also considered to be the place of origination of the second largest religion- Islam. The holy cities of Mecca and Medina are situated in Saudi Arabia which attracts a large number of pilgrims each year to the country. Ibn Saud who ruled from 1882-1953 is considered to be the main creator of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Ibn Saud was a descendant of Wahhabi leaders and emerged out as a leader of the Arab nationalist movement. The discovery of oil in 1936 served as a milestone for Saudi Arabia as Saudi Arabia is a major producer of oil and has huge reserves of oil since ancient times. With the beginning of commercial production of oil during the World War II huge revenues started flowing into the country thus leading to a large amount of wealth for the country. As a result free health care and education were provided to the residents of Saudi Arabia without any collection of taxes. Saudi Arabia was permitted to become to be the charter member of United Nations even though it was neutral during the World War II. The country became a member of the Arab league in 1945 and played an important role in the 1948-49 war against Israel and still does not recognize Israel as a country. The year 1953 marked the death of the king that is considered as the creator of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. With the death of Ibn Saud 11 year long reign of his son Saud began. Sauds reign was marked by increasing hostility of Egypts Gamal Abdel Nasser towards radical Arabism. In 1964 Saud was dethroned and replaced by the Prime Minister. Crown Prince Faisal was appointed as the prime minister of Saudi Arabia. Faisal did not give any military support to Egypt during the 1967 Arab Israel war but gave only vocal support. Faisal was assassinated in 1975 by a degraded kinsman. This assassination shook the Middle East but Faisals kingdom remained unperturbed and he was succeeded by his brother Prince Khalid. Prince Khalids support Egypt during negotiations on withdrawal of Israel from Sinai desert was quite influential. King Khalid died due to a heart attack in 1982. King Khalids half brother, Prince Fahd Bin Abdulaziz became the successor of Prince Khalid but he chose his half brother Abdullah as the crown prince. With the fear of becoming Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeinis next target if Iraq was conquered by Iran Saudi Arabia along with smaller oil rich states of the Arab on the Persian Gulf made huge financial contributions in the 1980s towards Iraqi war effort. Due to conserved efforts of oil consuming nations and Saudi Arabia being cheated by other members of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) led to a reduction in oil prices. The revenues coming from oil into Saudi Arabia reduced from $120 billion to $25 billion within a span of 5 years from 1980 to 1985. After suffering an incapacitating stroke, King Fahd passed his authorities to Crown Prince Abdullah. In 1998 Saudi Arabia entered its first recession in six years when its oil income fell by 40% due to a worldwide decrease in oil prices. An overview of Saudi Arabias economy and the state of their economic progress: During the last fifty years the economy of Saudi Arabia has developed at a swift pace as the Saudi state has been established and expanded. The country is economically very diverse but the income coming from oil revenues has played a significant role in the development of the state by the help of modern institutions of bureaucracy. It would have been quite difficult to think of a separate state of before the discovery of oil. Before 1930s the region which later came under the state of Saudi was composed od several regions with different regions depending on different products for their income. The Hijaz which was a western province, for example was dependent chiefly on subsistence agriculture, long distance trades and pilgrims coming to visit the holy places of Mecca and Medina as a source of revenue for the state. Since there many deserts in Saudi Arabia and the living conditions were quite hostile due to its harsh climate and lack of water there was a huge geographical separation between people of the country as most of the population concentrated at places where water was available. The influence from the outside world was quite negligible a as it was not only difficult to travel within the country but also the country lacked natural resources that could attract people from outside. There three main events that have led to the current structure of the Saudi Arabian economy. These events were the discovery of oil just six years after the establishment of Saudi Arabia, the rebuilding of Europe after the World War II which was greatly based on industrialization and the increasing demand of oil. All these events worked as a catalyst in increasing the growth rate of Saudi Arabia and led to enhancement in its position. With the discovery of oil there was a huge increase in revenues flowing into Saudi Arabia and the country witnessed a huge increase in the treasury during the rule of Abd Al Aziz Al in Abd also known as Rahman Saud from 1932 to 1953. This inflow of funds helped him to exert greater economic and political control over the territories under his control. This control helped him to implement all his ideas effectively and efficiently and during his reign the state saw a significant economic change with a shift from the traditional economy to an economy which depended primarily on states outlay. The huge reserves of oil in Saudi Arabia have not only driven huge revenues for the country but have also added to the importance of Saudi Arabia to the world. Initially with industrialization Europe was dependent on Saudi Arabia but today the flow of oil has become very essential the economic stability of the world. Saudi Arabia being the only major oil producing country that has significant excess capacity of crude oil has made the oil production and investment policies of Saudi Arabia an issue of international importance as the country has a strong influence on prices and supplies of oil internationally. Despite the attempts of authorities to diversify the economy and develop a non oil based sector in the country but practical implementation of these plans have proved to be more difficult than was expected by the authorities as Saudi is still under the influence of its traditional customs and although huge revenues have been flowing into the country since the invention of oil but the average standard of living of an average citizen of Saudi Arabia has increased as would be expected. Hence the real income source for Saudi Arabia is still the revenues coming from export and trading of oil. In the 1990s Saudi Arabia set out to meet the challenges of increasing oil production with the increasing demand and lower supplies from the former Soviet Union countries. As a result the authorities applied expansion plans for oil industry. In the process firstly the national oil company, Saudi Aramco planned to increase the domestic crude oil production from 8.4 million barrels per day in 1992 to between 10.5 million and 11 million barrels per day in the year 1995. In the process increased the share of production of lighter grades of crude oil. As a result of pollution and global warming becoming important aspects for all countries and with the demand of oil increasing Saudi Arabian Marketing and Refining Company (SAMAREC) decided to upgrade its refineries in order to meet high environmental standards followed in the western world. This step could also be seen as a step to increase production and keeping the demand of oil for Saudi Arabia constant without being affected by the lack of demand due to higher standards of oil required by the western countries. Thirdly the country acquired refineries in other countries and also planned to purchase refineries in places closer to their key consuming markets in order to reduce the cost of transportation incurred by the company and also led to an increase in the market share of Saudi Arabia in the world market. There was a sharp increase in the oil prices during 1970s and early 1980s which led to a huge increase in revenues for Saudi Arabia. This increase helped Saudi Arabia to get out of the chronic financial constraints that Saudi Arabia had been facing during the last few years. Since Saudi Arabias economy was not one of the best at time so its absorption capacity was also limited which resulted in delays in using the funds which led to creation of a large amount of funds for both government and private sectors of the Dubai economy and a large part of these surpluses were in international financial institutions and in securities of western government. In 1982 the emphasis of the government changed from managing surpluses to dealing with growing budgetary and concentrated on balancing payments shortfall. During the same time the world saw a decrement in the oil prices which resulted in a decrease in revenues for the country. This led the government into a problem as they were largely committed to big projects and the government had to make a large budget which resulted in a drawdown of foreign assets of the country. The country was also hit by the devaluation of dollar in the international market as the oil payments are made in dollars so the country had to face a double blow due to a reduction in oil prices and the weakening of dollar. The impact of rapid economic change or growth on employment and the workforce of the country: There have been many rapid economic changes in the world today. Most of these have affected almost all the countries across the world. Economic changes around the world have taken place since ancient times but with the opening up of economies around the world their effect is felt by almost all companies around the world. As today most of the countries are engaged in cross border businesses and trades. The effects of globalization have affected almost all the countries. Even though Saudi Arabia still has a relatively much close economy but it too has been affected by the rapid changes taking place around the world. Saudi Arabia is a major exporter of oil and its products which has become a necessity for any country around the world hence the economy of Saudi Arabia is bound to be affected by any economic changes taking place globally. As oil payments are made in dollars a change in dollar prices affects Saudi Arabia. Any recession hitting the world also affects Saudi Arabia as the dem and for oil reduces during even a hint of recession. Out of the many rapid changes, globalization has been a change that has affected the world greatly and there have been positive as well as negative responses of globalization. With globalization economies have opened up and restrictions on trades have been reduced greatly. Restrictions on imports and exports have been relaxed greatly in all parts of the world. The world today has become a global village. As a result of globalization which has been one of the most significant economic changes over the last few years the quality of oil produced within the country has been increased. The workforce of the country although still comprises mostly of the residents of Saudi Arabia only as the economy has not opened up as much as other countries have opened up. Also the education system and the traditional ways of working are still followed in Saudi Arabia. The employment has increased with the recent changes and the world turning up to industrialization more and more oil refineries have been setup in order to meet the increasing demand of oil around the world. Challenges and opportunities for Saudi Arabia: The opening up of the world and the closed structure of Saudi Arabias economy has also created some challenges for the country. It has been internationally recognized that the standard of living in Saudi Arabia is not as good as other parts of country. The mindset of the people living is still more influenced by the Arabic and Islamic cultures and the people are not quite open to accept views of others even if they might be better than what they might have thought. The country today also has a challenge of improving the education standard of the people living in the country. As the education standard of people living in Saudi Arabia is far below standards. Also the technological advancement is far slower than other parts of the world. The major challenge for the economy of Saudi Arabia is to develop other sectors of the market also and reduce its dependency on oil as oil being a non renewable source will be exhausted one day and it is important to have other sources of income also. Although the country also has many opportunities and also has the inflow of income required to help them achieve their goals. The income coming in from their oil reserves can be implemented in order to develop other sectors of market. The people of the country need an exposure to the outside world which may be possible if the economy opens up. The standard of education is currently a big concern which needs to be tackled properly. The current up comings have revealed that the government of Saudi Arabia has understood the importance of English and has started laying stress on promoting English amongst the people of the country. If the country is able to develop technically and the standard of education could be increased then there are probabilities that the outcome for the country would be quite good and self explanatory and will have a fortifying effect in its position among other countries of the world. Interesting Facts about Saudi Arabia: Some of the interesting facts about the country are listed below: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the official name of Saudi Arabia. The system of absolute monarchy s followed in Saudi Arabia. In terms of area it is the largest country in the Middle East. Saudi Arabia is also known as the land of two holy mosques as it houses Mecca and Medina the two holiest places in Islam. Oil accounts for more than 75% of the governments revenues and forms part of more than 90% exports from Saudi Arabia. The largest oil producing company ARAMCO is situated in Saudi Arabia. The first university in Saudi Arabia was found in 1957. Conclusion: From the study made to prepare this paper it is quite clear that the economy of Saudi Arabia is based on revenues coming from oil. The study has also revealed the closed structure of economy of Saudi Arabia and has exposed the lower standards of living and education standards in this country which is the largest producer of oil in the world. The country has a good impact on the world as it is the largest producer of oil in the world and oil is essential for any country in todays era of industrialization. All to compete with the world in a more profound manner it is important for them to improve their base in technological sectors and also improve the education standards of the country. The emphasis on English also has to be increased in order to promote talks internationally and remove third party intervention in international talks. Lastly I would like to say that the country has large inflow of income due to its richness in oil reserves and if the funds coming in from the oil produ ction are applied in right direction and with emphasis on technology and education Saudi Arabia can develop into a country which can compete with any world class country.

Comparison of Sci-Fi Films: Avatar Vs. Skyline

Comparison of Sci-Fi Films: Avatar Vs. Skyline Since the 1960s, science fiction movies were becoming a burgeoning demand in the film industry and continues to grow till today. The touchstone for scientific fiction, then, is that it describes an imaginary invention or discovery in the natural sciences. The most serious pieces of this fiction arise from speculation about what may happen if science makes an extraordinary discovery. The romance is an attempt to anticipate this discovery and its impact upon society, and to foresee how mankind may adjust to this new condition (Bailey, 1947). Science fiction is a subdivision of fantastic literature which employs science or rationalism to create an appearance of plausibility. (Brians, 1996). Science fiction is the argument with the universe (Mendelsohn, 1982). In general, science fiction is a genre of fiction about imaginative fantasy and science technologies. The storyline of Avatar is about how human beings attack the aliens but vice versa of Skyline. In Avatar, human attacked the blue-skinned human-like aliens to mine for a valuable mineral, Unobtanium on Pandora as the Earths natural resources have been severely depleted. To explore Pandora, scientists used Avatars to infiltrate the indigenous people, the Navi of Pandora and advocate peaceful relations with them. Jake, the main character was given only 3 months to evacuate the Navi, however, he failed to do so and the human commenced attack to drive them away. Although the Navi had won the battle at last, humans are the one to initiate and declare war on the aliens, causing destructions and casualties of both sides. On the other hand, the storyline of skyline is about alien invasion on Earth, where humans are attacked and abducted. It all begins when Jarrod and his girlfriend Elaine flew to Los Angeles (LA) for Jarrods best friend, Terry birthday party. The next morning, blue rays desc end from the sky, fascinating anyone who looks straight into them. Immobilized humans would walk towards the light source and are sucked into the machines. Counter attack by launching aircrafts failed to destroy the mother ship as well. Even Jarrod and Elaine are sucked into the mother ship. After that, the world was overruled by aliens. The reason why the aliens attacked human beings are left to be unknown as it was not stated in the movie itself. The most important difference between Avatar and Skyline though, is the setting. The settings in Avatar covers mainly of on the planet Pandora, a treasure trove of both living and non-living natural resources and wildlife. Although the scenes and backgrounds in the movie were computer-generated, they are all in high definition with the use of animation software by professional designers and illustrators to make the scenes as look realistic. James Cameron, director of the movie Avatar said, Ideally at the end of the day audience has no idea which they are looking at. For instance, the floating Hallelujah Mountains, the Hometree where the Navi clans gathered for spiritual events, Iknimaya, Banshee Rookery and other places made up the whole settings and backgrounds in Pandora of the movie. However, the settings in the movie Skyline are mostly in the city, Los Angeles. The invasion of aliens happened when Jarrod, the main character arrived in LA. These robotic aliens descended from the s ky, abducting any living human beings in LA, vacuuming up humans into the giant alien. In conclusion, Avatar and Skyline differ in storyline, settings and ending. I really enjoyed watching both movies as their plots are very interesting and exciting with suitable and satisfying endings. The settings and animations of both movies are really great. References Langan, J. (2010). College Writing Skills, (8th edition) New York: McGraw Hill. Bailey, J. O. (1947). Pilgrims Through Space and Time, New York Brians, P. (1996, May 16). Posting to the mailing list SF-LIT, Retrieved from 27 September 2013, from About.com http://scifi.about.com/od/scififantasy101/a/SCIFI_defs.htm Mendelsohn, K. (1986). Trillion Year Spree: the History of Science Fiction. London Perrin, R. (2012) Pocket Guide to APA Style (4th ed) Boston: Wadsworth.

A Worn Path Essay -- essays papers

â€Å"A Worn Path† â€Å"A Worn Path† is a story of determination and true strength of a grandmother through her journey to her grandson’s salvation. The title itself explores a cyclical path that each of us encounters in our lives and will continue to do so in the future. â€Å"The Worn Path† begins and ends throughout the course of Phoenix Jackson’s journey. In the story "A Worn Path" by Eudora Welty, an old woman whose human spirit is full of devotion, dignity and high drive overcomes tremendous impediments of life in the name of love for her grandson. Phoenix’s feebleness is evident through a description given portraying her as an elderly worn out woman whose hindered walk resembled â€Å"pendulum of a grandfather’s clock†. Her weaknesses and frail characteristics were plainly an impediment...

The True American Hero :: Essays Papers

The True American Hero Heroism demands self-sacrifice, self-discipline, self-confidence and self-respect. Ulysses S. Grant had these qualities in their most complete form. He set out from humble beginnings, and failed. At the age of 38 was a conspicuous failure. Then, like few of us, he succeeded beyond belief. Had he not had tremendous greatness within him, he could never have accomplished what he did. How did such a simple, honest and humble man raise himself in the eyes of his people and the world to the highest position a man or woman can reach - that of a national hero? Grant remained a child at heart throughout his life, and seems never to have realized that he was one. His faith in the goodness of humanity was unbounded, and he was taken advantage of. His simplicity of nature was remarkable, yet this simplicity was the mainspring of his success; certainly it was the first asset of his generalship. While McClellan could see nothing beyond his own operations and Halleck nothing outside of his textbooks, Grant saw things as they were, uncontaminated by his ideas or anyone elses. He saw that the entire problem of winning the civil war was nothing more than an equation between pressure and resistance. The side which pressed the hardest along the lines of least resistance was going to win. His simplicity was the foundation of his modesty and honesty. He could not bear shams, pretensions and humbug. He despised after-dinner speeches and such orations because he felt they were silly; he simply could not deliver them. His orders were always clear, because they were always simple, honest and modest. He could not understand why a man should be dishonest, for to him honesty always seemed the best policy. His modesty taught him self-control, and his sense of duty was exceeded only by his duty towards his country. Self-control leads to self-respect, to dignity without arrogance, to pride without vulgarity, to ambition without selfishness, and Grant possessed all these many virtues to the highest degree. He was not "dignified" in the way that General Lee was, though rough and ready, he was always a gentleman, in the best meaning of the word. He was proud of his soldiers and his work, and ambitious to do his utmost for his country. He had so great a faith in the Union cause that he never for a moment lost hope that in the end it would succeed.

Oedipus and Maze of Destiny Essay -- Literary Analysis

Responsibility is key to living a life that is one's own. In the play, "Oedipus Rex," by Sophocles, The tragic protagonist, Oedipus, was afflicted with a harsh sense of guilt once he learned that he has killed his father and married his mother. The play presents this appalling outcome through a prophecy that leads the audience to assume that Oedipus, like the rest of humanity, has little control over their destinies. People of the time when the play was first written, as well as many Christians today believe that God has a plan for everyone, but they are still responsible for the choices they make. In a life of uncertainty, people must try not to be afraid of what may lie ahead and press forward. Many tough decisions must be made that will develop aspects of their characters along these paths, which were separately designed for specific people. In this sense, life can be thought of as a maze. In Oedipus's case, he was given a hint about one of the paths within his maze. Another thought that exemplifies the significance that free will holds, is seen in elements of Sophocles' classic, which revealed that Oedipus had more knowledge over the details of his dilemma than he let himself become conscious of. The last idea will reveal how the onset of fear will push people down a treacherous path of risk and pain, which is also seen in the play through multiple characters. Free will is an attribute that all people possess. It could work as a tool to get individuals through the scary twists their lives may entail. It could also work against them in many ways, which depends on the level of human weakness and ignorance. But, the most important assertion that can be made after considering the argument of, "fate vs. free will," is that... ...e individual and lays out the structure of the life that this person was meant to wander. Similar to God, Apollo could only predict the different paths that Oedipus would take. The unchangeable factors of life have a large effect on how a person lives, but this does not mean that they are not the leaders of their own destinies. The knowledge of what was to come made Oedipus’s journey much more complicated, but it was his duty to deal with it in his own way, because this maze was his own to bid upon. Works Cited Sophocles, Frederic Will, and Bernard Knox. Oedipus the King. New York: Pocket, 2005. Print. Sophocles, Frederic Will, and Bernard Knox. "Critical Experts." Oedipus the King. New York: Pocket, 2005. Print. Abcarian, Richard, Marvin Klotz, and Samuel Cohen. Literature: the Human Experience. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010. Print.

Germans children Essay

The children of the Jewish Holocaust during the Nazi era were placed under very unjust, cruel, and exacting circumstances. Education, a basic right of children in developed nations of that era, was denied to Jews in areas of Europe where Hitler’s rule and influence were adopted. During the time of transition during which the exclusion of Jewish children from schools was being implemented, non-Jewish children were formally taught that their Jewish counterparts were inferior. In order to do this, Jewish youth were used to demonstrate the appearance of inferiority by placing them in front of the class and pointing out their characteristic phenotypes as being undesirable. Occurrences like this placed severe limitations on the ability of Jews to learn in these schools, as they were constantly mistreated, neglected, and abused because of their race. Growing restrictions were also placed upon these children’s accessibility to the resources within the schools, until finally they were prevented altogether from attending schools, which were open now only to Germans children (FCIT). Fred Spiegel describes his first weeks of school (shul) in Dinslaken, Germany, where he had to attend a Jewish shul, as the German schools were no longer open to Jewish children (Spiegel 27, 29). The alternative Jewish schools were understaffed and unsupported by the state. Spiegel himself recalls his school’s having only one teacher (29). Later, Arnold Blum recalls an even more frightening occurrence in which his school was being burned before his very eyes (Blum, 20). He immortalizes this event in his memoir â€Å"Kristallnacht† (20). More than just restricting these Jewish children’s ability to attend state schools, they were being stripped of their right to any education at all in the burning of their Jewish school. The parks were also an area in which Jewish children felt the abuse of Nazism. German children, who were armed with the idea that Jews were inferior, played in the parks and discriminated against the Jews they found there. The Jewish children were called names, spat upon, and otherwise abused by non-Jewish children. Spiegel also describes his time spent in the park behind his house in Dinslaken. The last time he remembers going there, he was cursed and called a â€Å"Dirty Jew† by the other children (Spiegel, 28). His grandfather too was cursed by his friends. Kristallnacht, which occurred on November 9-10, 1938, ushered in the destruction of all that was Jewish. Beyond the burning of schools came the burning and destruction of Jewish homes, businesses and synagogues (Blum, 20). Fred Spiegel recalls the night he was forced to leave his home and the abuses even he as a child faced. He was already emotionally crippled by the sight of his community being gutted by fires. He further recalls being cursed and spit upon by the non-Jews as he and his family were being forced from their homes. Some Jews were evicted to concentration camps and ghettos. Others were turned out of the country altogether. Spiegel writes about the events he witnessed upon entering his home, which had been destroyed, for the last time as a child: â€Å"My mother, sister, and my Aunt Klara were standing on the balcony crying. My grandfather had been arrested and taken away by two policemen. [†¦] Soon the two policemen returned. We were told we could not stay in our apartment and had to go with them. On the way out we passed by the downstairs apartment that was empty because the Abosch-family, a Jewish family who had rented it from my mother, had been expelled to Poland a few weeks earlier. Their apartment too was totally destroyed† (Spiegel, 30). Children were also abused through the mandate that they live in the ghettos. Because the ghettos were sequestered from the rest of the German civilization and restrictions were placed on items that could be brought into the area, children often suffered hunger. Many of them were reduced to smuggling food into the ghettos in order to aid in the support of their families. While these were very risky actions, some Jewish children were left even more vulnerable as their parents were killed or taken away to concentration camps. These orphaned children were left alone in the ghettos to make a living under doubly cruel circumstances.

Business to Business vs Business to Consumer Sites

Ethical, legal and regulatory issues of Business to Business (B2B) sites are quite similar to Business to Consumer (B2C) sites. The only difference is that the costumer is either a company or just an average Joe consumer. If he/she/it is a victim of a scam, false ad or leaking of valuable information, then the only result is loss of customer or possible revenue for the business. Rules governing online business differ from place to place so fraud is quite common on the online world. B2C web sites are about publicity, but B2B is often unmentioned because it is always in the background.Here we will look at the issues governing both web sites. It is important to take note that the ethical, legal and regulatory issues overlap or connect with each other. Ethical Since the boom of the Internet, ethics became very important online. Ethical issues in B2B sites deal with information about their companies and transactions they had. Ethics in this situation is very important. Sharing information about one’s company to another is unethical since it could be used by other companies against the company itself.Since the transactions had been done online one of the companies involved in the transaction could post the information about the transactions. The information posted could be virtually impossible to trace back to a company. Codes of ethics was developed to protect both parties. While on B2C sites, the issue is the privacy of the consumer. Not every consumer wants his name being advertised on web pages without his permission. For example, a famous artist bought an item over the net. Consequently, the company had his personal information since most of them require it. And the company posts his name as their customer.Then at that instant the famous artist became their endorser. But the privacy issue applies in both B2B and B2C sites. New technologies have emerged and these have impacts on the lives of consumers and businesses. Security and privacy become significant for the protection of both businesses and consumers. Anyone can post advertisements, unethical and illegal marketing and Ebusiness email scams that it is hard to determine who to trust online. For the most part, the participant’s ethics are set forth by ethical codes developed by international governing bodies which protect both parties.Legal Legal issues concerning B2C sites include copywriting and publishing. Libel can have bad implications if negative or defamatory articles were published about people and companies on other websites. Information must be fully researched before posting. Intellectual property rights should also be observed to prevent from any legal damages. Copyright infringements in both B2B and B2B websites should be avoided since this will affect the credibility of the websites and their relationship with the consumers or businesses. Only factual information should be posted.Before publishing anything, the web site must get permission first from the clie nts. Scams also have bad legal implications for the websites. They can be sued for publishing information that is incorrect or malicious. Both B2B and B2C sites should avoid money making scams. Identity theft, as well as Internet frauds in B2C sites will result to major problems. Moreover, if webmasters do unethical alterations in a clients web site, it will result to long lasting negative consequences for the business and for the client. This may urge clients to take legal action that may be harmful to the life of the B2C sites.Another area where B2B and B2C sites differ is on revealing trade secrets or intellectual property. Violation will only occur if an employee leaked information or sold it to a competitor. But unless a consumer invented or patented a product and was taken advantage of by a business, any statement saying that revealing or selling intellectual property will not apply here. Regulatory Regulations of B2B and B2C sites vary from state to state. Regulatory issues c oncerning B2B sites include activities which look into regulating the site.Since these sites post advertisements or pop-ups about their businesses, regulation must be observed so that only pop-ups of the business or company appear. The traffic of information is also regulated so that clients are not lost when they navigate these web sites. Regulations also play an important role to keep everything on track. B2C sites, on the other hand, also see regulation as important. Oftentimes, other companies post their ads on the sites of their competitors, thus attracting the consumers to visit and maybe try their services. This is stealing of customers, which is also an ethical and legal issue.Through regulation, this kind of situation can be prevented. Other regulatory issues involved include regulations on electronic, e-commerce, credit/cash policies, international trade, tariffs, privacy, digital media offers and security. REFERENCES Franz, Nora. (28 March 2006). Consumers: Beware of Onli ne â€Å"Freebie† Scams, Including Magazine Subscriptions Ethics in Question for Online Businesses Offering Freebies. Warholic, James A. Importance of Ethics on the Internet. Warholic, james A. Internet Marketing B2B vs B2C Comparisons for the Twenty-First Century.

Essay of Ancient China

Ancient China In ancient Chinese cosmology, the universe was created not by divinities but self-generated from the interplay of nature's basic duality: the active, light, dry, warm, positive, masculine yang and the passive, dark, cold, moist, negative yin. All things, animate and inanimate, and all circumstances were a combination of these fundamentals. The ultimate principle of the universe was the tao, â€Å"the way,† and it determined the proper proportions of yin and yang in everything. Anything that altered the natural relation of yin to yang was considered bad, and right living consisted of carefully following the tao.If one observed the tao by moderation, equanimity, and morality, as taught in the Tao-te Ching, by Lao-tzu (sixth century B. C. ), one would be impervious to disease and resistant to the ravages of aging; disregard of the tao led to illness, which was not so much a punishment for sin as the inevitable result of acting contrary to natural laws. However, illn ess also could be caused by forces beyond one's control: â€Å"Wind is the cause of a hundred diseases,† and atmospheric conditions could upset the harmonious inner balance of the yang and yin.One had to be alert to this possibility and combat its effects as well as modify internal imbalances of the vital forces. Longevity and health were the rewards. Chinese medicine, in league with Taoism, was focused on the prevention of illness; for, as the legendary Huang Ti, father of Chinese medicine, observed, â€Å"the superior physician helps before the early budding of disease. † Although Taoist hygiene called for temperance and simplicity in most things, sexual mores were governed by the yin-yang aspect of Chinese philosophy.Ejaculation in intercourse led to diminution of a man's yang, which, of course, upset the inner balance of his nature. On the other hand, one was strengthened by absorption of the yin released by the orgasm of one's female partner—unless she was over thirty, the point where female essence lost its efficacy. The tao was important in Confucianism also, as the path of virtuous conduct, and for centuries the precepts of Confucius (K'ung Fu-tzu, 550-479 B. C. ) set the most prevalent standards of behavior. In early Chinese philosophy, there was a tendency to accept and combine aspects of all religions and to make way for new ideas.Nevertheless, the ancient Chinese were profoundly conservative once an institution, custom, philosophy, mode of dress, or even a furniture style was firmly established, and it remained relatively unchanged over centuries. As Confucius said: â€Å"Gather in the same places where our fathers before us have gathered; perform the same ceremonies which they before us have performed; play the same music which they before us have played; pay respect to those whom they honored; love those who were dear to them. † Although ancient China's development was relatively isolated, there was early contact with India and Tibet.Buddhism came to China from India, and medical concepts and practices were an important part of its teachings. The gymnastic and breathing exercises in Chinese medical methodology also came from India and were closely related to the principles of Yoga and to aspects of Ayurvedic medicine. There were also contacts with Southeast Asia, Persia, and the Arabic world. In the second century B. C. , the Chinese ambassador Chang Chien spent more than a decade in Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt, bringing back information on drugs, viticulture, and other subjects.Over the centuries, knowledge of humoral medicine and of numerous new medicaments filtered into China. The introduction of the wisdom of the Mediterranean world was greatly facilitated in the fifth century by the expulsion and wide dispersion from Constantinople of the heretical Nestorian Christians. The mother of Kublai Khan (1216-94), founder of the Mongol dynasty, was a Nestorian and asked the Pope to send European d octors to China. Early Medical Writings Classical Chinese medicine was based primarily on works ascribed to three legendary emperors. The most ancient was Fu Hsi (c. 2900 B. C. , who was said to have originated the pa kua, a symbol composed of yang lines and yin lines combined in eight (pa) separate trigrams (kua) which could represent all yin-yang conditions. This system is followed even today in the I Ching (Book of Changes), though as a game or superstition in the West. Shen Nung, the Red Emperor (Hung Ti), compiled the first medical herbal, the Pen-tsao (c. 2800 B. C. ), in which he reported the effects of 365 drugs, all of them personally tested. One legend explains that a magic drug made his abdominal skin transparent, so he could observe the action of the many plants he evaluated.Another story tells that he cut open his abdomen and stitched in a window. Shen Nung is also said to have drawn up the first charts on acupuncture, a medical procedure presumably even older than the legendary emperors. The fame of Yu Hsiung (c. 2600 B. C. ), the Yellow Emperor (Huang Ti), rests on his great medical compendium, the Nei Ching (Canon of Medicine). Transmitted orally for many centuries, this seminal work was possibly committed to writing by the third century B. C. Its present form dates from the eighth century A. D. when the last extensive revision was done by Wang Ping. The major portion of the Nei Ching, the Sun-Wen (Simple Questions), records the discourse of the Yellow Emperor with Ch'i Po, his prime minister, on virtually all phases of health and illness, including prevention and treatment. The section called Ling-Hsu (Spiritual Nucleus), deals entirely with acupuncture. Yu Hsiung also was said to be responsible for another great compendium, The Discourses of the Yellow Emperor and the Plain Girl, which thoroughly covered the subject of sex from the Taoist point of view.Among other notable sources for ancient medical lore, one might mention the Shih Ching (Boo k of Odes), which perhaps predates Homer's epics, and the Lun-yu, discourses of Confucius probably written down shortly after his death, which affected patterns of behavior for many generations. During the long Chou dynasty (c. 1050-255 B. C. ), a lengthy compilation of medical works, Institutions of Chou, was completed and became the criterion for subsequent dynasties on the duties and organization of physicians. In the Han dynasty (206 B. C. -A. D. 20), there was a noted clinical author named Tsang Kung, who pioneered in the description of many diseases, including cancer of the stomach, aneurysm, and rheumatism. Chang Chung-ching, the Chinese Hippocrates, in the third century A. D. , wrote the classic treatise Typhoid and Other Fevers. Ko Hung, a famed alchemist and a careful observer, wrote treatises describing beriberi (a vitamin B deficiency), hepatitis, and plague, and gave one of the earliest reports on smallpox: â€Å"As the New Year approached there was a seasonal affectio n in which pustules appeared on the face and spread rapidly all over the body.They looked like burns covered with white starch and reformed as soon as they were broken. The majority died if not treated. After recovery purplish black scars remained. † Sun Szu-miao (A. D. 581-682) wrote Ch'ien Chin Yao Fang (A Thousand Golden Remedies), which summarized in thirty volumes much of the known medical learning, and he headed a committee which produced a fifty-volume collection on pathology. An extensive codification of forensic medicine, Hsi Yuan Lu, was done in the Sung dynasty and became the prime source for knowledge of medical jurisprudence.Anatomy and Physiology Ideas of anatomy in ancient China were reached by reasoning and. by assumption rather than dissection or direct observation. Since the doctrines of Confucius forbade violation of the body, it was not until the eighteenth century, long after Vesalius, that the Chinese began systematic, direct anatomical studies. Even as l ate as the nineteenth century, in the Viceroy's Hospital Medical School, anatomy was taught by diagrams and artificial models rather than dissection.Physiological functions were constructed into a humoral system much like Greek concepts of the sixth century B. C. and Galenic views of the second century A. D. , except that there were five instead of four essential humors. (The number five had mystical value for the Chinese and was used for most classifications: five elements, five tastes, five qualities, five kinds of drugs, five treatments, five solid organs, five seasons, five emotions, five colors, etc. ) The medical compendium Nei Ching stated that each emotion had its seat in a particular organ.Happiness dwelt in the heart, thought in the spleen, sorrow in the lungs, and the liver housed anger as well as the soul. Ideas in the Nei Ching concerning movement of the blood (â€Å"All the blood is under control of the heart. † â€Å"The blood current flows continuously in a c ircle and never stops. â€Å") have been thought to approach an understanding of its circulation antedating Harvey by thousands of years; however, some body vessels were believed to convey air, and there is little evidence that commentators perceived the blood-carrying vessels as a contained system. DiagnosisThe Chinese methods of diagnosis included questioning, feeling the pulse, observing the voice and body, and in some circumstances touching the affected parts. In almost all times and cultures physicians have used a similar approach, for all healers have sought to know as much as possible about a patient in order to understand his or her illness and advise treatment. However, in some respects ancient physicians saw each patient more completely as a reflection of his surroundings (indeed, the entire universe) than does the doctor of today. The Chinese doctor wanted to learn ow the patient had violated the tao, and to do this he took into account the patient's rank; changes in his or her social status, household, economic position, sense of well-being, or appetite; the weather; and the dreams of the patient and his or her family. Perhaps the most important diagnostic technique of the ancient Chinese was examination of the pulse. The physician felt the right wrist and then the left. He compared the beats with his own, noting precise time as well as day and season since each hour affected the nature of the pulsations.Each pulse had three distinct divisions, each associated with a specific organ, and each division had a separate quality, of which there were dozens of varieties. Moreover, each division or zone of the pulse had a superficial and deep projection. Thus literally hundreds of possible characteristics were obtainable. In one treatise, Muo-Ching, ten volumes were necessary to cover all the intricacies of the pulse. A patient had only to extend his or her arm through drawn bed curtains for the physician to determine the symptoms, diagnosis, prognosis, a nd proper treatment by intensive palpation of the pulse.Whenever possible the examiner also felt the skin of the ill person. However, it was considered bad form for a man to intimately examine a woman, so special ceramic, ivory, and wooden dolls were pointed to by the invalid to indicate where discomfort was felt. Treatment According to the Nei Ching, there were five methods of treatment: cure the spirit, nourish the body, give medications, treat the whole body, and use acupuncture and moxibustion. The physician had to put the patient back on the right path, the tao.Assuming that specific mental states caused changes in specific organs, the healer linked certain objectionable behavioral and constitutional factors with illness and attempted to have the patient rectify these. For instance, dissolute and licentious ideas led to diseases of the lungs, but acting out such thoughts brought on heart trouble. A doctor had to determine the cause of disharmony in the body and act accordingly. Exercises were developed to keep the body fit and to restore well-being. Hua T'o, the great surgeon, worked out an ingenious system of physical therapy by advising mimicry of the natural movements of animals.Massage—kneading, tapping, pinching, and chafing—was also a regular method of treatment, as were the application of plasters and evacuation of the intestinal tract by cathartics. In nourishing a patient's body, the physician resorted to complex combinations of foods according to their potential amounts of yang and yin. Foods also had to fit the seasons, and each of the five tastes had benefits for a particular element of the body: sour for the bones, pungent for the tendons, salty for the blood, bitter for respiration, and sweet for muscle.Medications The Chinese pharmacopoeia was always rich, from the time of the Pen-tsao, the first medical herbal, to the later dynasties when two thousand items and sixteen thousand prescriptions made up the armamentarium. Drugs w ere considered more likely to be good if they tasted bad. As one would expect, they were classified into five categories: herbs, trees, insects, stones, and grains. The therapeutic minerals and metals included compounds of mercury (calomel was employed for venereal diseases), arsenic, and magnetic stones.Animal-derived remedies, in addition to â€Å"dragon teeth† (powdered fossilized bones), included virtually anything obtainable from living creatures: whole parts, segments of organs, urine, dung. Two plant substances especially associated with China may be singled out. One is ephedra (ma huang), the â€Å"horsetail† plant described by the Red Emperor, which was used for thousands of years as a stimulant, as a remedy for respiratory -diseases, to induce fevers and perspiration, and to depress coughs.Ephedra entered the Greek pharmacopoeia and eventually was disseminated throughout most of the world. It only became a factor in Western medicine in the late nineteenth cen tury after Japanese investigators isolated and purified the active principle, ephedrine, and established its pharmacologic action. A second medicinal herb, always highly popular among the Chinese, is ginseng (â€Å"man-shaped root†). To the Chinese, preparations containing ginseng were almost miraculous in delaying old age, restoring sexual powers, stimulating the debilitated, and sedating the overwrought.In addition it improved diabetes and stabilized blood pressure. In recent years this root has been under scrutiny by Western pharmacologists attempting to evaluate its true benefits. Multitudes in Asia, and even some Westerners, are so convinced of its effectiveness that high-grade wild roots have brought fabulous prices (even reaching thousands of dollars apiece). Although many items in the Chinese materia medica have either faded into bscurity or been labeled fanciful, others subsequently have been found to possess sound pharmacologic bases: seaweed, which contains iodine, was used in treating enlargement of the thyroid; the willow plant, containing salicylic acid, was a remedy for rheumatism; the Siberian wort has antispasmodics for menstrual discomfort; and mulberry flowers contain rutin, a treatment for elevated blood pressure. Whether opium was used as a drug before quite late in Chinese history is still in dispute. Acupuncture and Moxibustion These modalities have been an integral part of Chinese medical therapy for thousands of years.The Yellow Emperor is said to have invented them, but they may well have existed long before his time. The aim of these treatments was to drain off excess yang or yin and thus establish a proper balance, but external energy also could be introduced into the body. In acupuncture the skin is pierced by long needles to varying prescribed depths. Needles are inserted into any of 365 points along the twelve meridians that traverse the body and transmit an active life force called ch'i. Each of these points is related to a particular organ.For instance, puncture of a certain spot on the ear lobe might be the proper way to treat an abdominal ailment. Virtually every illness, weakness, and symptom is thought to be amenable to correction by acupuncture. Acupuncture spread to Korea and Japan by the end of the tenth century A. D. , to Europe about the seventeenth century, and recent years have seen a wider interest in this Chinese medical practice in the West. Individual paramedical healers and even some medical practitioners have been swamped with requests for acupuncture, especially for problems apparently little benefited by conventional practices.The eventual acceptability of this practice in standard Western medicine remains to be seen. Moxibustion is as old as acupuncture, and the same meridians and points govern placement of the moxa. However, in this treatment a powdered plant substance, usually mugwort, is fashioned into a small mound on the patient's skin and burned, usually raising a blister. Dentistry The treatment of tooth disorders was confined mainly to applying or ingesting drugs—pomegranate, aconite, ginseng, garlic, rhubarb, and arsenic, as well as animal products such as dung and urine.The Nei Ching classified nine types of toothaches, which included some obviously due to infections and tooth decay. Like the Mesopotamians and Egyptians, the ancient Chinese believed that worms were often responsible for dental problems. Toothpicks and tooth whiteners were used, and loose teeth were stabilized with bamboo splints. Gold was sometimes used to cover teeth, but the purpose was decorative rather than protective. Surgery Although surgery was not one of the five methods of treatment listed in the Nei Ching, the knife was known and used.Hua T'o, one of the few names mentioned in connection with surgery, treated an arm wound of the famous general Kuan Yu by cutting his flesh and scraping the bone. Physicians knew how to deal with wounds, and at least two classics we re devoted entirely to their treatment. The proper attitude toward pain was to bear it without a sign of emotion, and much was made of the insouciance of the general treated by Hua T'o; he played chess while the surgeon operated. Nevertheless, apparently some kind of anesthesia was often used.Wine and drugs like hyoscyamus were probably mainstays, but the use of opium and Indian hemp is still in question. Eunuchs and Footbinding Another surgical procedure, though hardly therapeutic, was the frequent castration of certain males seeking advancement at court. Though originally a severe punishment, the total removal of penis and testicles came to be a pledge of absolute allegiance to the monarch, since it released the eunuch from conflict with Confucian admonitions of first loyalty to family and the obligation of siring a son for posterity.Footbinding is also of medical interest, for it caused the development of artificially clubbed feet. Over a period of one thousand years, every young girl of proper family willingly permitted herself to be crippled by her mother and aunts to achieve the tiny foot of ideal feminine beauty. Her toes were gradually folded under the sole, and by increasingly tight bandaging her heelbone and forefoot were brought closer together. Without Golden Lotuses, as the best-shaped bound feet were called, a girl was unmarriageable, nor was the life of a courtesan open to her, for tiny feet were a woman's most desirable feature.For a man, a bound-foot wife had profound sexual significance, but she was also a status symbol inasmuch as her helplessness indicated that he was wealthy enough to support a woman, or women, in idleness. There was also an advantage to him in her restricted mobility, for it kept her home and made illicit amorous adventures difficult. Although China's Manchu conquerors forbade the practice in the nineteenth century, it was not until the early twentieth that footbinding was completely abandoned. Diseases Some epidemic dise ases were understood well enough to allow the development of protective measures.In the eleventh century, inoculation against smallpox was effected by putting scabs from smallpox pustules into the nostrils, a method which may have come from India. Wearing the clothing of someone who had the disease was another means of prevention. The relationship of cowpox (as a protective) to smallpox may have been perceived, since ingesting powdered fleas from infected cows was also recommended to stave off smallpox. But other devastating pestilences were neither understood nor held in check. During the Han dynasty an epidemic of what appears to have been typhoid fever killed two-thirds of the population of one region.Precise descriptions of leprosy in the Nei Ching and later works attest to the diagnostic accuracy of the early Chinese healers, but their explanation of the disease's causes and their treatment follow preconceived notions of the time. â€Å"The wind and chills lodge in the blood v essels and cannot be got rid of. This is called li-feng. For the treatment prick the swollen parts with a sharp needle to let the foul air out. † Fourteenth-century writings referred to chaulmoogra oil, a pressing from seeds of an East Indian tree, as a specific for leprosy, and this oil remained the principal antileprous drug even in the West until recent decades.An illness that may have been tuberculosis was recognized as contagious: â€Å"Generally the disease gives rise to high fever, sweating, asthenia, unlocalized pains making all positions difficult and slowly bringing about consumption and death, after which the disease is transmitted to the relations until the whole family has been wiped out. † Venereal diseases, although not well differentiated, received a variety of therapies, including the use of metallic substances for internal medication.In the Secret Therapy for the Treatment of Venereal Disease, the seventeenth-century physician Chun Szi-sung reported us ing arsenic, which, until the development of penicillin, was the modern medication for venereal disease, in the form of Salvarsan and derivatives synthesized by Paul Ehrlich. There seem always to have been places in China where the sick poor could go for medical care. With the advance of Buddhism in the Han and T'ang dynasties, in-patient hospitals staffed by physician-priests became common.However, in the ninth century, when anti-Buddhists were in control, hospitals as well as 4,600 temples were destroyed or emptied. Nevertheless, by the twelfth century hospitals had again become so numerous that virtually every district had at least one tax-supported institution. The upper classes preferred to be treated and cared for in their homes, thus leaving public hospitals to the poor and lower classes. The Practitioners In the Institutions of Chou, compiled hundreds of years before Christ, the hierarchy of physicians in the kingdom was delineated.The five categories were: chief physician ( who collected drugs, examined other physicians, and assigned them); food physicians (who prescribed six kinds of food and drink); physicians for simple diseases (such as headaches, colds, minor wounds); ulcer physicians (who may have been the surgeons); and physicians for animals (evidently veterinarians). Physicians were also rated according to their results, and as early as the Chou and T'ang dynasties each doctor had to report both successes and failures—to control his movement up or down in the ranks.In the seventh century A. D. examinations were required for one to qualify as a physician, some four centuries earlier than the first licensing system in the West. Medical knowledge was thought of as a secret power that belonged to each practitioner. Whereas in other societies, both advanced and primitive, closely knit guilds might control the spread of medical lore, the Chinese physician kept his secrets to himself—passing them on only to sons or, sometimes, specially selected qualifiers.In early times, a physician gave his services out of philanthropy, for since the original healers were rulers, sages, nobles, and, perhaps, priests, economic and social incentives were absent. Later, direct fees or salaries were instituted, and the court and certain prosperous households kept physicians on retainer. Formal schools may have existed as early as the tenth century, and in the eleventh century an organization for medical education was set up under imperial auspices. Under the Ming dynasty in the fourteenth century, the school system became fixed. It changed little over the next centuries, xcept for a gradual decline, and by 1800 there was only one medical school left in Peking. Teachers were held strictly accountable for the performance of their students, and fines were imposed if the professor failed to enforce attendance or if his pupils did poorly on exams. The examination system was complex: a pyramidal structure provided a process of elimination which continued until those with the highest scores emerged. The top students could be heart doctors, the next level were assistant examiners, and lower scores could mean limited assignment in teaching.Specialization may have occurred early. While physicians and apothecaries were separate for a long time, they were both regarded as healers. In the Chou dynasty there were nine specialties, and they grew to thirteen by the Mongol period, early in the fourteenth century. The subdivisions became even more complex, with doctors for the great blood vessels, small vessels, fevers, smallpox, eyes, skin, bones, larynx, and mouth and teeth. There were also gynecologists, pediatricians, and pulsologists for internal diseases, external medicine, the nose and throat, and for children's illnesses.Some healers specialized in moxibustion, acupuncture, or massage. Even the experts in incantation and dietetics were considered medical specialists and were often held in higher regard than other doctor s; surgeons were generally of low rank. Furthermore, each of the practitioners in each category had assistants and students—all of whom had to qualify by examination. Obstetrics was in the hands of midwives for many centuries; it is not known when the first women doctors were in practice. One female physician is mentioned by name in documents from the Han dynasty (206 B.C. -A. D. 220), but women may have been doctors at an earlier date. By the fourteenth century women were officially recognized as physicians. Throughout the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), the practicing medical theorists could be divided into six main philosophic schools. The Yin-yang group focused on insufficiencies of one of these forces. The Wen-pou doctors attributed illnesses to a preponderance of yang and frequently prescribed ginseng and aconite. The Radical group used drastic medication.The Conservatives relied entirely on the authorities of the past, reedited the classic works, and made no deviations from strict authoritarianism. The Eclectic physicians, as their name implies, used a variety of principles from the other sects. The sixth school based all therapy on bringing the five elements and six vapors into harmony. Spread of Chinese Medicine to Korea, Japan, And Tibet Ancient Chinese medicine was well-developed long before the beginning of the Christian era, and its influence appears to have spread into adjacent Korea by the sixth century A.D. At that time, after a severe epidemic had ravaged Japan, Korean doctors who were invited to counsel Japanese physicians introduced them to Chinese medical classics and commentaries. By the seventh century, Japanese scholars and doctors were going directly to China for their information and experience. In the eighth century, a Chinese Buddhist monk named Chien Chen came to Japan and achieved a prominent position in the imperial court at Nara, where, given the Japanese name Kanjin, he taught, practiced medicine, and translated Chinese materia medica.Late in that century, Chinese medicine was well-established in Japan, and a medical school based on its methodology was founded by the Japanese physician Wake Hiroya. Early in the next century (806–10), the Emperor Heijo vainly attempted to combat foreign influence and restore traditional Japanese medical practice, but the methods of Chinese healing were too firmly entrenched. In the tenth century, acupuncture reached Japan, followed by moxibusti on (the word moxa is Japanese), and the full complement of Chinese medicine was accepted in Japan.With medical training closely based on Chinese systems, the Japanese exacted exceptionally intensive and prolonged study before permitting entrance into the profession by governmental examination. As in ancient China, high social standing was a requirement for admission to medical school, but separate instruction by assigned teachers was apparently also arranged to accommodate the more lowly. The authority of Chinese medicine, no t to mention Chinese culture and philosophy, moved east as well as west by the seventh and eighth centuries.However, Arabic and Indian missionaries of Islam and Buddhism made influence a two-way exchange as they traveled to China seeking converts. Since their missions necessitated the translation of Sanskrit and Arabic writings into Chinese and vice versa, medical knowledge inevitably was passed back and forth. Consequently, the crossroads areas of Southeast Asia and Tibet developed a medical system combining aspects of Chinese, Indian, and Arabic practice. Arabic influence, which stemmed in part from Greek teachings, was evident in the doctrine of four humors (phlegm, blood, bile, and wind), whereas Indian deas were seen in the Yogic placement of the soul in the core of the spinal column and reliance on breathing exercises. Traveling Buddhist priests, who were quite successful in spreading their faith, for a long time also practiced medicine. During this early period, the two wives (one Chinese) of a Tibetan king converted him to Buddhism, and thereafter scholars were invited to bring Chinese writings into Tibet, which resulted in collections in Tibetan called Kanjur and Tanjur, the latter containing medical information.In the thirteenth century, the Mongol conqueror Kublai Khan wanted this body of knowledge available again in Chinese but was unable to carry through the translation. Nevertheless, his grandson in the next century arranged for scholars from Tibet, Mongolia, and Central Asia to accomplish the task. Ironically, while the Mongols were in control they allied themselves with non-Chinese such as Uighars, Jews, Christians, and Moslems, and they preferred Arabic medicine to Chinese. Essay of Ancient China Ancient China In ancient Chinese cosmology, the universe was created not by divinities but self-generated from the interplay of nature's basic duality: the active, light, dry, warm, positive, masculine yang and the passive, dark, cold, moist, negative yin. All things, animate and inanimate, and all circumstances were a combination of these fundamentals. The ultimate principle of the universe was the tao, â€Å"the way,† and it determined the proper proportions of yin and yang in everything. Anything that altered the natural relation of yin to yang was considered bad, and right living consisted of carefully following the tao.If one observed the tao by moderation, equanimity, and morality, as taught in the Tao-te Ching, by Lao-tzu (sixth century B. C. ), one would be impervious to disease and resistant to the ravages of aging; disregard of the tao led to illness, which was not so much a punishment for sin as the inevitable result of acting contrary to natural laws. However, illn ess also could be caused by forces beyond one's control: â€Å"Wind is the cause of a hundred diseases,† and atmospheric conditions could upset the harmonious inner balance of the yang and yin.One had to be alert to this possibility and combat its effects as well as modify internal imbalances of the vital forces. Longevity and health were the rewards. Chinese medicine, in league with Taoism, was focused on the prevention of illness; for, as the legendary Huang Ti, father of Chinese medicine, observed, â€Å"the superior physician helps before the early budding of disease. † Although Taoist hygiene called for temperance and simplicity in most things, sexual mores were governed by the yin-yang aspect of Chinese philosophy.Ejaculation in intercourse led to diminution of a man's yang, which, of course, upset the inner balance of his nature. On the other hand, one was strengthened by absorption of the yin released by the orgasm of one's female partner—unless she was over thirty, the point where female essence lost its efficacy. The tao was important in Confucianism also, as the path of virtuous conduct, and for centuries the precepts of Confucius (K'ung Fu-tzu, 550-479 B. C. ) set the most prevalent standards of behavior. In early Chinese philosophy, there was a tendency to accept and combine aspects of all religions and to make way for new ideas.Nevertheless, the ancient Chinese were profoundly conservative once an institution, custom, philosophy, mode of dress, or even a furniture style was firmly established, and it remained relatively unchanged over centuries. As Confucius said: â€Å"Gather in the same places where our fathers before us have gathered; perform the same ceremonies which they before us have performed; play the same music which they before us have played; pay respect to those whom they honored; love those who were dear to them. † Although ancient China's development was relatively isolated, there was early contact with India and Tibet.Buddhism came to China from India, and medical concepts and practices were an important part of its teachings. The gymnastic and breathing exercises in Chinese medical methodology also came from India and were closely related to the principles of Yoga and to aspects of Ayurvedic medicine. There were also contacts with Southeast Asia, Persia, and the Arabic world. In the second century B. C. , the Chinese ambassador Chang Chien spent more than a decade in Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt, bringing back information on drugs, viticulture, and other subjects.Over the centuries, knowledge of humoral medicine and of numerous new medicaments filtered into China. The introduction of the wisdom of the Mediterranean world was greatly facilitated in the fifth century by the expulsion and wide dispersion from Constantinople of the heretical Nestorian Christians. The mother of Kublai Khan (1216-94), founder of the Mongol dynasty, was a Nestorian and asked the Pope to send European d octors to China. Early Medical Writings Classical Chinese medicine was based primarily on works ascribed to three legendary emperors. The most ancient was Fu Hsi (c. 2900 B. C. , who was said to have originated the pa kua, a symbol composed of yang lines and yin lines combined in eight (pa) separate trigrams (kua) which could represent all yin-yang conditions. This system is followed even today in the I Ching (Book of Changes), though as a game or superstition in the West. Shen Nung, the Red Emperor (Hung Ti), compiled the first medical herbal, the Pen-tsao (c. 2800 B. C. ), in which he reported the effects of 365 drugs, all of them personally tested. One legend explains that a magic drug made his abdominal skin transparent, so he could observe the action of the many plants he evaluated.Another story tells that he cut open his abdomen and stitched in a window. Shen Nung is also said to have drawn up the first charts on acupuncture, a medical procedure presumably even older than the legendary emperors. The fame of Yu Hsiung (c. 2600 B. C. ), the Yellow Emperor (Huang Ti), rests on his great medical compendium, the Nei Ching (Canon of Medicine). Transmitted orally for many centuries, this seminal work was possibly committed to writing by the third century B. C. Its present form dates from the eighth century A. D. when the last extensive revision was done by Wang Ping. The major portion of the Nei Ching, the Sun-Wen (Simple Questions), records the discourse of the Yellow Emperor with Ch'i Po, his prime minister, on virtually all phases of health and illness, including prevention and treatment. The section called Ling-Hsu (Spiritual Nucleus), deals entirely with acupuncture. Yu Hsiung also was said to be responsible for another great compendium, The Discourses of the Yellow Emperor and the Plain Girl, which thoroughly covered the subject of sex from the Taoist point of view.Among other notable sources for ancient medical lore, one might mention the Shih Ching (Boo k of Odes), which perhaps predates Homer's epics, and the Lun-yu, discourses of Confucius probably written down shortly after his death, which affected patterns of behavior for many generations. During the long Chou dynasty (c. 1050-255 B. C. ), a lengthy compilation of medical works, Institutions of Chou, was completed and became the criterion for subsequent dynasties on the duties and organization of physicians. In the Han dynasty (206 B. C. -A. D. 20), there was a noted clinical author named Tsang Kung, who pioneered in the description of many diseases, including cancer of the stomach, aneurysm, and rheumatism. Chang Chung-ching, the Chinese Hippocrates, in the third century A. D. , wrote the classic treatise Typhoid and Other Fevers. Ko Hung, a famed alchemist and a careful observer, wrote treatises describing beriberi (a vitamin B deficiency), hepatitis, and plague, and gave one of the earliest reports on smallpox: â€Å"As the New Year approached there was a seasonal affectio n in which pustules appeared on the face and spread rapidly all over the body.They looked like burns covered with white starch and reformed as soon as they were broken. The majority died if not treated. After recovery purplish black scars remained. † Sun Szu-miao (A. D. 581-682) wrote Ch'ien Chin Yao Fang (A Thousand Golden Remedies), which summarized in thirty volumes much of the known medical learning, and he headed a committee which produced a fifty-volume collection on pathology. An extensive codification of forensic medicine, Hsi Yuan Lu, was done in the Sung dynasty and became the prime source for knowledge of medical jurisprudence.Anatomy and Physiology Ideas of anatomy in ancient China were reached by reasoning and. by assumption rather than dissection or direct observation. Since the doctrines of Confucius forbade violation of the body, it was not until the eighteenth century, long after Vesalius, that the Chinese began systematic, direct anatomical studies. Even as l ate as the nineteenth century, in the Viceroy's Hospital Medical School, anatomy was taught by diagrams and artificial models rather than dissection.Physiological functions were constructed into a humoral system much like Greek concepts of the sixth century B. C. and Galenic views of the second century A. D. , except that there were five instead of four essential humors. (The number five had mystical value for the Chinese and was used for most classifications: five elements, five tastes, five qualities, five kinds of drugs, five treatments, five solid organs, five seasons, five emotions, five colors, etc. ) The medical compendium Nei Ching stated that each emotion had its seat in a particular organ.Happiness dwelt in the heart, thought in the spleen, sorrow in the lungs, and the liver housed anger as well as the soul. Ideas in the Nei Ching concerning movement of the blood (â€Å"All the blood is under control of the heart. † â€Å"The blood current flows continuously in a c ircle and never stops. â€Å") have been thought to approach an understanding of its circulation antedating Harvey by thousands of years; however, some body vessels were believed to convey air, and there is little evidence that commentators perceived the blood-carrying vessels as a contained system. DiagnosisThe Chinese methods of diagnosis included questioning, feeling the pulse, observing the voice and body, and in some circumstances touching the affected parts. In almost all times and cultures physicians have used a similar approach, for all healers have sought to know as much as possible about a patient in order to understand his or her illness and advise treatment. However, in some respects ancient physicians saw each patient more completely as a reflection of his surroundings (indeed, the entire universe) than does the doctor of today. The Chinese doctor wanted to learn ow the patient had violated the tao, and to do this he took into account the patient's rank; changes in his or her social status, household, economic position, sense of well-being, or appetite; the weather; and the dreams of the patient and his or her family. Perhaps the most important diagnostic technique of the ancient Chinese was examination of the pulse. The physician felt the right wrist and then the left. He compared the beats with his own, noting precise time as well as day and season since each hour affected the nature of the pulsations.Each pulse had three distinct divisions, each associated with a specific organ, and each division had a separate quality, of which there were dozens of varieties. Moreover, each division or zone of the pulse had a superficial and deep projection. Thus literally hundreds of possible characteristics were obtainable. In one treatise, Muo-Ching, ten volumes were necessary to cover all the intricacies of the pulse. A patient had only to extend his or her arm through drawn bed curtains for the physician to determine the symptoms, diagnosis, prognosis, a nd proper treatment by intensive palpation of the pulse.Whenever possible the examiner also felt the skin of the ill person. However, it was considered bad form for a man to intimately examine a woman, so special ceramic, ivory, and wooden dolls were pointed to by the invalid to indicate where discomfort was felt. Treatment According to the Nei Ching, there were five methods of treatment: cure the spirit, nourish the body, give medications, treat the whole body, and use acupuncture and moxibustion. The physician had to put the patient back on the right path, the tao.Assuming that specific mental states caused changes in specific organs, the healer linked certain objectionable behavioral and constitutional factors with illness and attempted to have the patient rectify these. For instance, dissolute and licentious ideas led to diseases of the lungs, but acting out such thoughts brought on heart trouble. A doctor had to determine the cause of disharmony in the body and act accordingly. Exercises were developed to keep the body fit and to restore well-being. Hua T'o, the great surgeon, worked out an ingenious system of physical therapy by advising mimicry of the natural movements of animals.Massage—kneading, tapping, pinching, and chafing—was also a regular method of treatment, as were the application of plasters and evacuation of the intestinal tract by cathartics. In nourishing a patient's body, the physician resorted to complex combinations of foods according to their potential amounts of yang and yin. Foods also had to fit the seasons, and each of the five tastes had benefits for a particular element of the body: sour for the bones, pungent for the tendons, salty for the blood, bitter for respiration, and sweet for muscle.Medications The Chinese pharmacopoeia was always rich, from the time of the Pen-tsao, the first medical herbal, to the later dynasties when two thousand items and sixteen thousand prescriptions made up the armamentarium. Drugs w ere considered more likely to be good if they tasted bad. As one would expect, they were classified into five categories: herbs, trees, insects, stones, and grains. The therapeutic minerals and metals included compounds of mercury (calomel was employed for venereal diseases), arsenic, and magnetic stones.Animal-derived remedies, in addition to â€Å"dragon teeth† (powdered fossilized bones), included virtually anything obtainable from living creatures: whole parts, segments of organs, urine, dung. Two plant substances especially associated with China may be singled out. One is ephedra (ma huang), the â€Å"horsetail† plant described by the Red Emperor, which was used for thousands of years as a stimulant, as a remedy for respiratory -diseases, to induce fevers and perspiration, and to depress coughs.Ephedra entered the Greek pharmacopoeia and eventually was disseminated throughout most of the world. It only became a factor in Western medicine in the late nineteenth cen tury after Japanese investigators isolated and purified the active principle, ephedrine, and established its pharmacologic action. A second medicinal herb, always highly popular among the Chinese, is ginseng (â€Å"man-shaped root†). To the Chinese, preparations containing ginseng were almost miraculous in delaying old age, restoring sexual powers, stimulating the debilitated, and sedating the overwrought.In addition it improved diabetes and stabilized blood pressure. In recent years this root has been under scrutiny by Western pharmacologists attempting to evaluate its true benefits. Multitudes in Asia, and even some Westerners, are so convinced of its effectiveness that high-grade wild roots have brought fabulous prices (even reaching thousands of dollars apiece). Although many items in the Chinese materia medica have either faded into bscurity or been labeled fanciful, others subsequently have been found to possess sound pharmacologic bases: seaweed, which contains iodine, was used in treating enlargement of the thyroid; the willow plant, containing salicylic acid, was a remedy for rheumatism; the Siberian wort has antispasmodics for menstrual discomfort; and mulberry flowers contain rutin, a treatment for elevated blood pressure. Whether opium was used as a drug before quite late in Chinese history is still in dispute. Acupuncture and Moxibustion These modalities have been an integral part of Chinese medical therapy for thousands of years.The Yellow Emperor is said to have invented them, but they may well have existed long before his time. The aim of these treatments was to drain off excess yang or yin and thus establish a proper balance, but external energy also could be introduced into the body. In acupuncture the skin is pierced by long needles to varying prescribed depths. Needles are inserted into any of 365 points along the twelve meridians that traverse the body and transmit an active life force called ch'i. Each of these points is related to a particular organ.For instance, puncture of a certain spot on the ear lobe might be the proper way to treat an abdominal ailment. Virtually every illness, weakness, and symptom is thought to be amenable to correction by acupuncture. Acupuncture spread to Korea and Japan by the end of the tenth century A. D. , to Europe about the seventeenth century, and recent years have seen a wider interest in this Chinese medical practice in the West. Individual paramedical healers and even some medical practitioners have been swamped with requests for acupuncture, especially for problems apparently little benefited by conventional practices.The eventual acceptability of this practice in standard Western medicine remains to be seen. Moxibustion is as old as acupuncture, and the same meridians and points govern placement of the moxa. However, in this treatment a powdered plant substance, usually mugwort, is fashioned into a small mound on the patient's skin and burned, usually raising a blister. Dentistry The treatment of tooth disorders was confined mainly to applying or ingesting drugs—pomegranate, aconite, ginseng, garlic, rhubarb, and arsenic, as well as animal products such as dung and urine.The Nei Ching classified nine types of toothaches, which included some obviously due to infections and tooth decay. Like the Mesopotamians and Egyptians, the ancient Chinese believed that worms were often responsible for dental problems. Toothpicks and tooth whiteners were used, and loose teeth were stabilized with bamboo splints. Gold was sometimes used to cover teeth, but the purpose was decorative rather than protective. Surgery Although surgery was not one of the five methods of treatment listed in the Nei Ching, the knife was known and used.Hua T'o, one of the few names mentioned in connection with surgery, treated an arm wound of the famous general Kuan Yu by cutting his flesh and scraping the bone. Physicians knew how to deal with wounds, and at least two classics we re devoted entirely to their treatment. The proper attitude toward pain was to bear it without a sign of emotion, and much was made of the insouciance of the general treated by Hua T'o; he played chess while the surgeon operated. Nevertheless, apparently some kind of anesthesia was often used.Wine and drugs like hyoscyamus were probably mainstays, but the use of opium and Indian hemp is still in question. Eunuchs and Footbinding Another surgical procedure, though hardly therapeutic, was the frequent castration of certain males seeking advancement at court. Though originally a severe punishment, the total removal of penis and testicles came to be a pledge of absolute allegiance to the monarch, since it released the eunuch from conflict with Confucian admonitions of first loyalty to family and the obligation of siring a son for posterity.Footbinding is also of medical interest, for it caused the development of artificially clubbed feet. Over a period of one thousand years, every young girl of proper family willingly permitted herself to be crippled by her mother and aunts to achieve the tiny foot of ideal feminine beauty. Her toes were gradually folded under the sole, and by increasingly tight bandaging her heelbone and forefoot were brought closer together. Without Golden Lotuses, as the best-shaped bound feet were called, a girl was unmarriageable, nor was the life of a courtesan open to her, for tiny feet were a woman's most desirable feature.For a man, a bound-foot wife had profound sexual significance, but she was also a status symbol inasmuch as her helplessness indicated that he was wealthy enough to support a woman, or women, in idleness. There was also an advantage to him in her restricted mobility, for it kept her home and made illicit amorous adventures difficult. Although China's Manchu conquerors forbade the practice in the nineteenth century, it was not until the early twentieth that footbinding was completely abandoned. Diseases Some epidemic dise ases were understood well enough to allow the development of protective measures.In the eleventh century, inoculation against smallpox was effected by putting scabs from smallpox pustules into the nostrils, a method which may have come from India. Wearing the clothing of someone who had the disease was another means of prevention. The relationship of cowpox (as a protective) to smallpox may have been perceived, since ingesting powdered fleas from infected cows was also recommended to stave off smallpox. But other devastating pestilences were neither understood nor held in check. During the Han dynasty an epidemic of what appears to have been typhoid fever killed two-thirds of the population of one region.Precise descriptions of leprosy in the Nei Ching and later works attest to the diagnostic accuracy of the early Chinese healers, but their explanation of the disease's causes and their treatment follow preconceived notions of the time. â€Å"The wind and chills lodge in the blood v essels and cannot be got rid of. This is called li-feng. For the treatment prick the swollen parts with a sharp needle to let the foul air out. † Fourteenth-century writings referred to chaulmoogra oil, a pressing from seeds of an East Indian tree, as a specific for leprosy, and this oil remained the principal antileprous drug even in the West until recent decades.An illness that may have been tuberculosis was recognized as contagious: â€Å"Generally the disease gives rise to high fever, sweating, asthenia, unlocalized pains making all positions difficult and slowly bringing about consumption and death, after which the disease is transmitted to the relations until the whole family has been wiped out. † Venereal diseases, although not well differentiated, received a variety of therapies, including the use of metallic substances for internal medication.In the Secret Therapy for the Treatment of Venereal Disease, the seventeenth-century physician Chun Szi-sung reported us ing arsenic, which, until the development of penicillin, was the modern medication for venereal disease, in the form of Salvarsan and derivatives synthesized by Paul Ehrlich. There seem always to have been places in China where the sick poor could go for medical care. With the advance of Buddhism in the Han and T'ang dynasties, in-patient hospitals staffed by physician-priests became common.However, in the ninth century, when anti-Buddhists were in control, hospitals as well as 4,600 temples were destroyed or emptied. Nevertheless, by the twelfth century hospitals had again become so numerous that virtually every district had at least one tax-supported institution. The upper classes preferred to be treated and cared for in their homes, thus leaving public hospitals to the poor and lower classes. The Practitioners In the Institutions of Chou, compiled hundreds of years before Christ, the hierarchy of physicians in the kingdom was delineated.The five categories were: chief physician ( who collected drugs, examined other physicians, and assigned them); food physicians (who prescribed six kinds of food and drink); physicians for simple diseases (such as headaches, colds, minor wounds); ulcer physicians (who may have been the surgeons); and physicians for animals (evidently veterinarians). Physicians were also rated according to their results, and as early as the Chou and T'ang dynasties each doctor had to report both successes and failures—to control his movement up or down in the ranks.In the seventh century A. D. examinations were required for one to qualify as a physician, some four centuries earlier than the first licensing system in the West. Medical knowledge was thought of as a secret power that belonged to each practitioner. Whereas in other societies, both advanced and primitive, closely knit guilds might control the spread of medical lore, the Chinese physician kept his secrets to himself—passing them on only to sons or, sometimes, specially selected qualifiers.In early times, a physician gave his services out of philanthropy, for since the original healers were rulers, sages, nobles, and, perhaps, priests, economic and social incentives were absent. Later, direct fees or salaries were instituted, and the court and certain prosperous households kept physicians on retainer. Formal schools may have existed as early as the tenth century, and in the eleventh century an organization for medical education was set up under imperial auspices. Under the Ming dynasty in the fourteenth century, the school system became fixed. It changed little over the next centuries, xcept for a gradual decline, and by 1800 there was only one medical school left in Peking. Teachers were held strictly accountable for the performance of their students, and fines were imposed if the professor failed to enforce attendance or if his pupils did poorly on exams. The examination system was complex: a pyramidal structure provided a process of elimination which continued until those with the highest scores emerged. The top students could be heart doctors, the next level were assistant examiners, and lower scores could mean limited assignment in teaching.Specialization may have occurred early. While physicians and apothecaries were separate for a long time, they were both regarded as healers. In the Chou dynasty there were nine specialties, and they grew to thirteen by the Mongol period, early in the fourteenth century. The subdivisions became even more complex, with doctors for the great blood vessels, small vessels, fevers, smallpox, eyes, skin, bones, larynx, and mouth and teeth. There were also gynecologists, pediatricians, and pulsologists for internal diseases, external medicine, the nose and throat, and for children's illnesses.Some healers specialized in moxibustion, acupuncture, or massage. Even the experts in incantation and dietetics were considered medical specialists and were often held in higher regard than other doctor s; surgeons were generally of low rank. Furthermore, each of the practitioners in each category had assistants and students—all of whom had to qualify by examination. Obstetrics was in the hands of midwives for many centuries; it is not known when the first women doctors were in practice. One female physician is mentioned by name in documents from the Han dynasty (206 B.C. -A. D. 220), but women may have been doctors at an earlier date. By the fourteenth century women were officially recognized as physicians. Throughout the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), the practicing medical theorists could be divided into six main philosophic schools. The Yin-yang group focused on insufficiencies of one of these forces. The Wen-pou doctors attributed illnesses to a preponderance of yang and frequently prescribed ginseng and aconite. The Radical group used drastic medication.The Conservatives relied entirely on the authorities of the past, reedited the classic works, and made no deviations from strict authoritarianism. The Eclectic physicians, as their name implies, used a variety of principles from the other sects. The sixth school based all therapy on bringing the five elements and six vapors into harmony. Spread of Chinese Medicine to Korea, Japan, And Tibet Ancient Chinese medicine was well-developed long before the beginning of the Christian era, and its influence appears to have spread into adjacent Korea by the sixth century A.D. At that time, after a severe epidemic had ravaged Japan, Korean doctors who were invited to counsel Japanese physicians introduced them to Chinese medical classics and commentaries. By the seventh century, Japanese scholars and doctors were going directly to China for their information and experience. In the eighth century, a Chinese Buddhist monk named Chien Chen came to Japan and achieved a prominent position in the imperial court at Nara, where, given the Japanese name Kanjin, he taught, practiced medicine, and translated Chinese materia medica.Late in that century, Chinese medicine was well-established in Japan, and a medical school based on its methodology was founded by the Japanese physician Wake Hiroya. Early in the next century (806–10), the Emperor Heijo vainly attempted to combat foreign influence and restore traditional Japanese medical practice, but the methods of Chinese healing were too firmly entrenched. In the tenth century, acupuncture reached Japan, followed by moxibusti on (the word moxa is Japanese), and the full complement of Chinese medicine was accepted in Japan.With medical training closely based on Chinese systems, the Japanese exacted exceptionally intensive and prolonged study before permitting entrance into the profession by governmental examination. As in ancient China, high social standing was a requirement for admission to medical school, but separate instruction by assigned teachers was apparently also arranged to accommodate the more lowly. The authority of Chinese medicine, no t to mention Chinese culture and philosophy, moved east as well as west by the seventh and eighth centuries.However, Arabic and Indian missionaries of Islam and Buddhism made influence a two-way exchange as they traveled to China seeking converts. Since their missions necessitated the translation of Sanskrit and Arabic writings into Chinese and vice versa, medical knowledge inevitably was passed back and forth. Consequently, the crossroads areas of Southeast Asia and Tibet developed a medical system combining aspects of Chinese, Indian, and Arabic practice. Arabic influence, which stemmed in part from Greek teachings, was evident in the doctrine of four humors (phlegm, blood, bile, and wind), whereas Indian deas were seen in the Yogic placement of the soul in the core of the spinal column and reliance on breathing exercises. Traveling Buddhist priests, who were quite successful in spreading their faith, for a long time also practiced medicine. During this early period, the two wives (one Chinese) of a Tibetan king converted him to Buddhism, and thereafter scholars were invited to bring Chinese writings into Tibet, which resulted in collections in Tibetan called Kanjur and Tanjur, the latter containing medical information.In the thirteenth century, the Mongol conqueror Kublai Khan wanted this body of knowledge available again in Chinese but was unable to carry through the translation. Nevertheless, his grandson in the next century arranged for scholars from Tibet, Mongolia, and Central Asia to accomplish the task. Ironically, while the Mongols were in control they allied themselves with non-Chinese such as Uighars, Jews, Christians, and Moslems, and they preferred Arabic medicine to Chinese.